Nobel Prize Winner. Nobel Prize in Literature

Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology to Americans - 73-year-old Michael Rosbash, 72-year-old Jeffrey Hall and 68-year-old Michael Young . They received the award for discovering the molecular mechanisms responsible for controlling circadian rhythms.

Scientists have been able to isolate a gene in fruit flies that controls daily biological rhythms living organism. They managed to “look inside our biological clock and explain how plants, animals and people adapt their biological rhythms to the earth,” the press release says.Hall, Rosbash, and Young found during their study that this gene contains a protein that accumulates in cells at night and is destroyed during the day.

They have been working on this topic for several decades and have been able to identify the mechanisms that control The biological clock both humans and other organisms that function according to the same principles. They adapt to the phases of the day and regulate behavior, hormone levels, sleep, body temperature, metabolism and many other important processes.

For the first time, they managed to isolate the PER gene in 1984, and subsequent studies made it possible to identify others. important components. It is now known that circadian rhythms are not only about sleep and wakefulness, because almost all cells live in a cycle whose duration is approximately 24 hours.

Their work is important after all, the discrepancy between lifestyle and rhythms affects human health and over time can lead to the development of various diseases. In addition, knowledge about the features of the cycle may in the future contribute to the creation of drugs to normalize it, because in some it is displaced due to mutations in the genes.

Rosbash noted that representatives of the committee called him at 5 am."I was asleep. And the first thought was that someone had died,” he said. Yang was also very surprised. Each of the scientists will receive ⅓ of the cash reward, which this year is $1.1 million.

Physics

Nobel Prize winners in physics alsoAmericans have become MIT professor Rainer Weiss, 85, Barry Barish, 81, and Kip Thorne, 77, from California Institute of Technology for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves.

Photo: Credit Molly Riley/Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

In February 2016 A group of physicists and astronomers announced that they had detected waves using two gravitational telescopes as a result of the collision of two black holes that are a billion light-years from Earth. Here , which is called the main scientific discovery century, at 15 points.

Gravitational waves were predicted by Albert Einstein a century ago, but before that no one had been able to detect them. The Academy called it "a discovery that shook the world."

Weiss, Barish and Thorne, founders of the LIGO observatory, which fixed gravitational waves, and the international scientific communityLIGO Scientific Collaboration, which spent 40 years and more than $1 billion on research. Weiss will receive half of the cash prize, Barish and Thorne will split the other half. Their work will allow us to study things that scientists did not even know about before.

According to Weiss, this award is a recognition of the work of about a thousand people over the past 40 years. He also added that many did not believe when they recorded the first signals in September 2015. It took another 2 months to make sure they were real.

Chemistry

Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry become 75-year-old Swiss Jacques Dubochet, 77-year-old American Joachim Frank and 72-year-old Briton Richard Henderson. They received the award for the development of high resolution cryoelectron microscopy.

Scientists have developed new way get accurate 3D images of biomolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA. This helped to decipher the processes that occur in cells that were previously invisible, as well as to better understand diseases such as the Zika virus. In the future, their discovery may help develop needed drugs.

"There will be no more secrets. Now we see the complex details of biomolecules in every cell of our body," said Sara Snogerup Linse, head of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry, during the announcement of the award results.

Henderson noted that he was at a briefing in Cambridge when the bell rang. He hung up, but the phone continued to ring. Frank received the good news early in the morning at his home in New York.

The shape of proteins and other biomolecules is important for understanding their functions. For example, the structure of a virus helps to understand how it attacks cells. Henderson, Dubochet and Frank, in the course of their work, proposed to study biomolecules by instantaneous freezing of the liquid in which they are located. The Swedish Academy of Sciences noted that this is important both for understanding chemical principles life in general, and for subsequent drug development. This technology has already been tested not only on the Zika virus, but also during the study of proteins involved in the control of circadian rhythms, for which this year the Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded.

Literature

Following Svetlana Aleksievich and Bob Dylan, this year he received the Nobel Prize 62-year-old British writer of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro. The Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded him an award with the wording "for the novels of a huge emotional strength who opened up the abyss behind our illusory sense of connection with the outside world."

Ishiguro was born in 1954 in Japanese Nagasaki in the family of an oceanographer, and at the age of 5 he moved to England. His passion for literature began at the age of 9 or 10, when he found stories about Sherlock Holmes in the local library.

In his youth, the future writer wanted to make music and write songs. In the music industry great success he did not succeed, but it helped shape his distinctive style.

Ishiguro often refers to the theme of memory, death and time. The story in his novels is usually in the first person, and the plot has a deep subtext. In addition, the writer managed to work in different genres- in his books there are elements of detective stories, westerns, science fiction and even fantasy.

During his writing career, he released 7 novels, a number of short stories and plays. Among the most popular works are "The Rest of the Day" and "Don't Let Me Go", which were once filmed. Here we suggest that you should know in order to seem like a well-read intellectual.

The news of the award caught him during a press conference in London. For Ishiguro, it was a shock. “If I had guessed anything, I would have washed my hair this morning. When I think of all the modern great authors who have not yet received the Nobel Prize, I feel like a little cheater, ”he added.

Ishiguro is currently working on a new novel. There are also several film adaptations and theater projects in the plans.

World

The Norwegian Nobel Committee awarded the Nobel Peace Prize to the coalition of international organizations ICAN (International Movement for the Abolition of Nuclear Weapons). She received the award for her work in drawing attention to the catastrophic humanitarian consequences of any use of nuclear weapons and for her pioneering efforts in drafting a treaty banning such weapons.

The coalition actively contributed to the negotiations, which eventually led to the adoption by the UN of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in July 2017. It involves a ban on the development, testing, storage, acquisition, transportation and use of nuclear weapons. Despite active protests against this document, 53 UN members have already signed it. In a statement, ICAN noted that the award is a tribute to the ongoing work of the millions of activists who oppose nuclear weapons.

“We received this news with joy. Every year there should be at least one happy event that would give us hope. And this is exactly the case, ”said the Ambassador of Costa Rica to the UN and the head of the negotiation process, Ellen White Gomez.

ICAN has become the 24th organization to win the Nobel Peace Prize since 1901. Prior to this, the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees have received awards.

ICAN Director Beatrice Fin said that the coalition initially considered the news a hoax. The bell rang in their office, but no one believed until the name of the organization sounded during the announcement of the results of the award. She also said that this award is a message to all nuclear states and all countries that continue to use nuclear weapons for security, because such behavior is unacceptable.

The Swedish Academy of Sciences will be the last to announce the name of the winner of the Economics Prize. This will happen on Monday, October 9, at 12:45 Kyiv time. You can watch live broadcast.

During the Nobel Week, as usual, the attention to the history of this scientific award is sharpened, the great scientists who became its laureates, as well as those who, for some reason, did not receive it, are remembered. An interesting source of information in this regard may be the catalog of nominations available on the website of the Nobel Foundation, where information is published on all the nominees for the prizes and those who proposed each of the candidates. Information about the candidates remained a secret for 50 years, so now the catalogs contain data from 1901 to 1963. In particular, there is no data on the economics premium at all, since it has existed only since 1969.

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Those wishing to study the catalog should take into account some features. When classifying by country, domestic nominees are divided into two groups: “Russian Federation” and “USSR”, the option “Russian Empire” is not provided. The breakdown is pretty unpredictable. All applicants for the prize in physiology or medicine, for example, are considered representatives of the USSR, even Ivan Pavlov and Ilya Mechnikov. All who were nominated for the Peace Prize were representatives of the Russian Federation, including, for example, Nicholas II, who in 1901 claimed the prize for the initiative to convene the 1899 Hague Conference on the Laws and Customs of War. Physicists and chemists are randomly distributed between Russian Federation and the USSR.

We will present short review domestic scientists who could receive awards in the natural sciences.

Physics Prize

In 1905 and 1912, Pyotr Lebedev was nominated for the prize, famous for his experience in which he discovered the pressure of light. This outstanding experimental physicist would certainly have received a prize sooner or later, but in the same 1912, the 46-year-old scientist died of a heart attack.

In 1930, the list of nominees includes Leonid Mandelstam and Grigory Landsberg, nominated for the discovery of Raman scattering of light. This year's prize went to Indian physicist Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who independently discovered the same phenomenon. The only difference is that Mandelstam and Landsberg observed the scattering effect on crystals, while Raman observed it in liquids and vapors. Perhaps the Nobel Committee felt that Raman was ahead of his Soviet colleagues. As a result, Raman scattering is called Raman scattering, and not Mandelstam-Landsberg scattering.

In 1935, a biologist, Alexander Gurvich, appeared on the list of nominees for a prize in physics, for the discovery of ultra-weak ultraviolet radiation from body tissues. Since Gurvich believed that this radiation stimulated cell division (mitosis), Gurvich called it "mitogenetic radiation". Commentators on Bulgakov's works call Gurvich one of the possible prototypes of Professor Persikov from the story Fatal Eggs.

Pyotr Kapitsa first appears on the list back in 1946. In the future, he was repeatedly nominated for the award, sometimes in one year at the same time by different nominees (1946-1950, 1953, 1955, 1956-1960). Among the scientists who proposed the candidacy of Kapitsa were Niels Bohr and Paul Dirac. He received the Nobel Prize only in 1977, 31 years after the first nomination.

The candidacy of Vladimir Veksler was proposed in 1947. In 1944, this scientist discovered the principle of autophasing, which is the basis for charged particle accelerators: synchrotrons and synchrophasotrons. Under the direction of Veksler, a synchrophasotron was built at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna. A year later, the autophasing principle, independently of Wexler, was discovered by the American scientist Edwin Macmillan, who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 (together with Glenn Seaborg), though not for the autophasing principle itself, but for research on a nuclear accelerator transuranic elements. Vladimir Veksler was also nominated in 1948 and 1951 (together with Macmillan), 1956, 1957 and 1959, but he never received the prize.

In the same 1947, the Nobel Committee proposed the candidacy of Dmitry Skobeltsyn, who was engaged in cosmic ray physicists.

In 1952, Pavel Cherenkov was mentioned for the first time among those nominated for the prize in physics, who back in 1934, when he was a graduate student of Sergei Vavilov, studied luminescence in a liquid under the action of gamma radiation and discovered a bluish glow caused by fast electrons knocked out of atoms by gamma rays open phenomenon known under the names "Cherenkov radiation" and "Vavilov-Cherenkov effect". Cherenkov was also nominated in 1955-1957 and received the prize in 1958 together with Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm, who gave theoretical explanation effect discovered by him (the first nomination of Frank and Tamm was a year earlier). In 1957 and 1958, Sergey Vavilov was also on the list of nominees, but he died in 1951, and they could no longer award him the prize.

The story of Lev Landau, in terms of the number of proposals for his candidacy and the high authority of the scientists who nominated him, is reminiscent of the story of Pyotr Kapitsa, but still he had to wait for recognition not so long, less than ten years. Landau was first nominated by the American physicist Robert Marshak in 1954. This is followed by continuous nominations from 1956 to 1960, and in 1962 Landau finally receives the award. Interestingly, in the following year, 1963, five scientists, including Niels Bohr, again proposed Landau's candidacy. Whether these proposals continued further is still unknown, because information for subsequent years in open access no.

Among the scientists nominated in 1957, in addition to Vladimir Veksler, there are two more Soviet scientists involved in the creation of charged particle accelerators: Alexei Naumov and Gersh Budker.

Another outstanding experimental physicist, Evgeny Zavoisky, has been repeatedly nominated for the prize. This happened from 1958 to 1963, and possibly beyond (the scientist died in 1976). Zavoisky became famous for the discovery of electron paramagnetic resonance. This is indeed a major scientific achievement, undoubtedly worthy of the Nobel Prize.

In 1959, 1960 and 1963, the mathematician and physicist Nikolai Bogolyubov, the author of a number of discoveries in quantum physics, is mentioned. In his case, it is also very likely that offers of his candidacy continued after 1963. Nikolai Bogolyubov died in 1992.

Abram Ioffe was nominated in 1959. It is unlikely that the reason for the nomination was the experiment on the charge of the electron, which Ioffe produced in 1911 independently of Robert Millikan (in 1923 Millikan received the Nobel Prize). Most likely Ioffe was nominated for his later work in physics solid body and semiconductors.

The creators of quantum generators, Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov, received the prize in 1964 together with their American colleague Charles Townes. Prior to that, they were nominated (together with the same Townes) from 1960, 1962 and 1963.

In 1962, the geochemist and crystallographer Nikolai Belov was nominated for the prize. It is most likely that he developed the theory of symmetry of the closest packings of atoms in crystals, which made it possible to study the structures a large number minerals.

Chemistry Prize

In the first couple of decades of the existence of the Nobel Prize, they still tried to more or less adhere to the words from the will of Alfred Nobel: “... those who for the previous year made the greatest contribution to the progress of mankind ... ". Later, this was reasonably abandoned altogether, but such an outstanding scientist as Dmitry Mendeleev never received the prize in chemistry, because his main main thing is periodic law- he did back in 1869. Although he was put forward by many scientists in 1905 - 1907.

In 1914, Paul Walden, who worked at the University of Riga, was among the candidates. Coincidentally, this Last year scientist's life Russian Empire, with the outbreak of World War I, Walden emigrated to Germany. Note that here the nominees are still trying to comply with the "principle of the previous year", the most famous achievement of Walden occurred shortly before the nomination. He was the first to obtain an ionic liquid with a melting point below room temperature - ethylammonium nitrate.

The botanist and physiologist Mikhail Tsvet became a contender for the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of chromatography, which played a significant role in the subsequent development analytical chemistry. On the next year scientist is dead.

In 1921, the candidacy of the microbiologist Sergei Vinogradsky was proposed. He is known for discovering chemosynthesis - obtaining energy through an oxidation reaction. inorganic compounds. Chemosynthesis is characteristic of a number of bacteria. Vinogradsky studied, in particular, iron bacteria, which oxidize ferrous iron to ferric iron, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which oxidize ammonia and play huge role in the natural nitrogen cycle. Before the discovery of Vinogradsky, only one species of autotrophs was known (capable of independently creating organic matter) organisms - plants that exist due to photosynthesis.

One of the founders of electrochemistry, Alexander Frumkin, was nominated for the Nobel Prize in 1946, 1962, 1963 (probably later). He is best known for explaining surface phenomena at electrodes in solution and their relation to velocity. chemical reaction(kinetics of electrode processes).

The only Russian scientist who received the Nobel Prize for discoveries in the field of chemistry, Nikolai Semenov, was on the lists of candidates in 1946-1948, 1950, 1955 and received the 1956 prize. It is interesting that he is also among those nominated for the next prize in chemistry, 1957.

Alexander Braunstein is known for his work on the biochemistry of amino acids and enzymes, in particular the discovery of transamination reactions and the role of pyrodoxine (vitamin B6) in amino acid transformations. His candidacy was proposed in 1952.

It is interesting that Max Vollmer (1955) appears as a representative of Russia in the catalog of nominees, although he lived in the USSR only from 1946 to 1955. He worked first in Moscow at NII-9 on a method for the production of heavy water, then at "Plant No. 817" in Chelyabinsk-40 (now the Mayak Production Association in the city of Ozersk), where the tellurium-120 isotope was obtained. Volmer is known for his work in the field of electrochemistry. He discovered the phenomenon of "Volmer diffusion" in adsorbed molecules, and was also one of the co-authors of the "Butler-Volmer equation". In 1955 Vollmer moved to the GDR. He was nominated for the Chemistry Prize six more times already as a representative of Germany. His presence in the list of domestic scientists is a curiosity of the Nobel catalogue.

Organic chemist Alexander Arbuzov was among the candidates in 1956, 1961 and 1962. Moreover, in 1956 he was nominated together with his son and student Boris Arbuzov. He discovered many organoelement compounds and studied their properties. Alexander Arbuzov is especially famous for the study of organic derivatives of phosphorus acids.

Georgy Stadnikov is known for his work on the chemistry of hot shale, asphalt rocks, coal, peat and oil. He was nominated in 1957. It should be noted that just two years before this, the scientist was released from prison, where he spent 17 years, and fully rehabilitated “due to newly discovered circumstances” and “due to the lack of corpus delicti”.

In 1957 and 1962, the candidacy of the geochemist Alexander Vinogradov, the author of works on the geochemistry of isotopes, was proposed. chemical evolution Earth and the mechanisms of formation of planetary shells, biogeochemistry, the isotope method in the study of plant photosynthesis, chemical composition meteorites, soil of the Moon and Venus.

The two scientists we have already mentioned among the physicists were also nominated for the prize in chemistry. These are Evgeny Zavoisky (1958, 1960) and Nikolai Belov (1962).

Prize in Physiology and Medicine

In terms of the number of nominations in this area, domestic scientists outnumber physicists (114 versus 80), but it should be taken into account that 62 of these nominations refer to one person - Ivan Pavlov. Since the first year of the award's existence, a huge number of scientists have proposed his candidacy. In 1904, the prize was finally awarded "for works on the physiology of digestion, which expanded and changed the understanding of vital important aspects this issue." However, Pavlov's subsequent work on the study of higher nervous activity no less deserved the Nobel Prize, so he was repeatedly nominated again in 1925, 1927, 1929 (ten nominations per year). But Ivan Petrovich still did not become a two-time Nobel Prize winner.

In the very first year of the existence of the award, the candidacy of Ilya Mechnikov was also proposed. In total, he was nominated 69 times in 1901-1909. He received the Mechnikov Prize in 1908 for his work on immunity, hence the four scientists who nominated him in 1909 considered him worthy of two prizes. Interestingly, in the catalog on the website of the Nobel Committee, Mechnikov's nominations are classified not as Russian, but as French. From 1887 until his death, he worked in Paris at the Pasteur Institute.

In 1904 Ernst von Bergmann was nominated. Although at that time he had already been working in Germany for a long time at the Universities of Würzburg and Berlin, he is worth mentioning. Until 1878, von Bergmann was a professor at Dorpat University, and in 1877, during Russian-Turkish war, was a military doctor in the Russian army. In science, von Bergmann is known for his works on military field surgery, asepsis, and most importantly, he is one of the founders of neurosurgery. His work "Surgical Treatment of Brain Diseases" became a classic.

In 1905, Sergey Chiriev, a professor at Kyiv University, was nominated for the prize, author of the works “On the Coordination of Animal Movements”, “Physical Blood Statics”, “Electromotive Properties of Muscles and Nerves”, “General Muscular and nervous physiology"and others.

Among the contenders for the Nobel Prize were Ivan Dogel and Alexander Dogel, uncle and nephew. Ivan Dogel, who worked at Kazan University, was nominated in 1907 and 1914. He was one of the founders of experimental pharmacology, and also studied the physiology of the organs of vision and hearing, the nervous system and blood circulation. He was the first to experimentally prove the possibility of reflex cardiac arrest upon stimulation. nerve endings nasal mucosa. In the catalog of the Nobel Committee, it is erroneously presented as two different person: Jean Dogiel (1907) and Ivan Dogiel (1914).

Alexander Dogel was a pioneer in neurohistology. He was the first to describe the nerve terminal apparatus in the tissues and organs of animals, laid the foundation for the study of the synapses of the autonomic nervous system. Alexander Dogel also developed a method of lifetime staining nerve elements methylene blue. His candidacy was proposed in 1911.

Sergei Vinogradsky, whom we discussed in the section on chemistry, was also nominated in 1911 for a prize in physiology and medicine. Another scientist, also already mentioned, only among physicists, Alexander Gurvich, was nominated in 1929, 1932-1934.

In 1912, 1914 and 1925 (in last case- eight times a year) the candidacy of Vladimir Bekhterev, an outstanding neuropathologist and psychiatrist, was proposed. great attention to him in 1925, apparently due to the fact that shortly before that, his work “ General Basics human reflexology.

Alexander Maksimov was nominated for the prize in 1918. Among the achievements of this histologist is the development of the method of tissue cultures, the study of the process of hematopoiesis. He described hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells) and was the first to propose the term "stem cell" ( Stammzelle in his work, published in German).

In 1934, Petr Lazarev was nominated. He graduated from both the medical and (external) faculties of physics and mathematics at Moscow University. Pyotr Lazarev made a significant contribution to biophysics by creating a physicochemical theory of excitation and investigating the effect of electric current on nerve tissue.

Léon Orbeli was nominated in 1934 and 1935. His main achievements relate to evolutionary physiology, the study of the functions of the sympathetic and autonomic nervous systems, and the mechanisms of higher nervous activity.

Immediately six scientists in 1936 proposed the candidacy of Alexei Speransky. He studied the role of the nervous system in pathological processes, as well as in compensation for impaired body functions. In 1930, his work " Nervous system in pathology”, and in 1936 – “Nervous trophism in the theory and practice of medicine”.

Among the many achievements of the physiologist Nikolai Anichkov, the most important is the discovery of the role of cholesterol in the development of atherosclerosis. As the modern American biochemist Daniel Steinberg writes: ““If true value his findings were appreciated in a timely manner, we would have saved more than 30 years of efforts to settle the cholesterol controversy, and Anichkov himself could have been awarded the Nobel Prize.” Anichkov's candidacy was proposed in 1937.

Efim London created the world's first work on radiobiology, Radium in Biology and Medicine (1911). Further research on the impact ionizing radiation on living organisms, he outlined in the book "Radium and X-rays"(1923). Another of his achievements is the technique of angiostomy, which made it possible to study the metabolism in the organs of a living animal. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in 1939.

In 1939, according to the Molotov-Ribentropp pact, Soviet troops occupied western Ukraine, in particular the city of Lviv. It was this circumstance that caused Rudolf Weigl, the founder of the Lvov Institute for Epidemiological Research, to be mentioned among the Soviet scientists nominated for the Nobel Prize. His candidacy was proposed just in 1939. In science, Weigl is famous as the creator of the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus. Until 1939, he was nominated several dozen times as a Polish scientist, but he never received the prize. Perhaps Weigl would have been a worthy candidate for the Nobel Peace Prize. In his clinic, during the German occupation, he sheltered Jews and Poles, and also secretly smuggled the vaccine into the Warsaw and Lviv ghettos.

In 1946, two Soviet scientists were nominated for the prize. If the prize had been awarded to them, they would have added to the number of married couples among the winners. Biochemists Vladimir Engelhardt and Milica Lyubimova-Engelhardt proved that the protein myosin, from which for the most part muscles are composed, has the properties of an enzyme. It breaks down adenosine triphosphoric acid, and the energy released ensures the contraction of muscle fibers.

Finally, in 1950, the famous physiologist and ophthalmologist Vladimir Filatov, who created the method of corneal transplantation, was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Every year, for many years, the Nobel Prize has been awarded in Stockholm (Sweden) and Oslo (Norway).

The award is very prestigious and is awarded only to the most worthy representatives who have achieved significant achievements, playing important role in the development of all mankind. In the article we have grouped Nobel Prize winners from Russia and the USSR by fields of science.

History of the Nobel Prize

The prize was invented by Alfred Nobel, after whom it is called. He was also the first laureate to receive the award for the invention of dynamite in 1867. In 1890, the Nobel Foundation was founded, designed to pay prizes to awarded laureates. His initial capital was the savings of Alfred Nobel, accumulated by him throughout his life.

The size of the Nobel Prize is quite high, for example, in 2010 it was about one and a half billion dollars. Prizes are awarded in the following areas: medicine and physiology, physics, chemistry and literature.

In addition, a peace prize is awarded - for active actions in establishing peace throughout the world. Our compatriots have been nominated more than once for the Nobel Prize, which is prestigious in all respects, and often become laureates.

Nobel Prize Winners in Physics

1958 - Igor Tamm, Ilya Frank and Pavel Cherenkov were the first to receive the Nobel Prize. The award was presented for collective research into the field of gamma radiation and its effects on various liquids.

During the experiments, a blue glow was discovered, later called the "Cherenkov effect". The discovery made it possible to use new techniques in measuring and detecting the velocities of nuclear, high-energy particles. This was a huge breakthrough for experimental nuclear physics.

In 1962 - Lev Landau. Legendary personality in the history of the development of physics. He conducted a lot of research in various fields of physics and mechanics. He made a huge contribution to the development of many branches of science.

He received his award for the creation and detailed description quantum fluid theory, as well as for experimental studies various condensed matter. The main experiments were carried out with liquid helium.

In 1964 - Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolai Basov. The award was received for joint developments in the field of radiophysics and quantum electronics. These studies made it possible to invent molecular generators - masers, as well as special amplifiers that concentrate radiation into one powerful beam.

1978 -, In 1978, using the example of helium, he discovered the phenomenon of superfluidity - the ability of a substance that is in the state of a quantum liquid and under temperature conditions close to absolute zero, to penetrate without any friction through the smallest holes.

2000 - Zhores Alferov- awarded for the development of fundamentally new semiconductors that can withstand huge energy flows and are used in the creation of ultra-fast computers. In DVD drives, which are equipped with all modern computers, laser recording to disc uses just these technologies.

2003 - trio: Vitaly Ginzburg, American Anthony Leggett and Alexei Abrikosov- for a theory explaining two phenomena quantum physics– superfluidity and superconductivity of various materials.

AT modern science they are used to create superconductors used in ultra-precise diagnostic medical equipment, in scientific equipment involved in research related to particle acceleration and many other physical phenomena.

2010 - Andrey Game and Konstantin Novoselov (former citizens Russia, now subjects of the Kingdom of Great Britain) received an award for the discovery of graphene and the study of its properties. It captures and transforms light into electrical energy 20 times more than all previously opened materials and increases the speed of the Internet connection.

Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry

1956 - Nikolai Semenov author of many scientific achievements. However, his most famous work, for which he received this prestigious award, was the study of various chain reactions occurring at high temperatures. This discovery made it possible to gain control over all ongoing processes and to predict the final outcome of each process.

1977 - Ilya Prigozhy n (a native of Russia, lives in Belgium) received a prize for the theory of dispassive structures and for research on non-equilibrium thermodynamics, which made it possible to close many gaps between biological, chemical and social research fields.

Nobel laureates in medicine and physiology

1904 - Ivan Pavlov, the first Russian academician - physiologist who received the Nobel Prize. He was engaged in the study of the physiology of digestion and the nervous regulation of the processes occurring during this. Awarded by the Nobel Committee for the study of the main digestive glands and their functions.

It was he who divided all the reflexes of the digestive tract into conditional and unconditioned. Thanks to these data, a clearer understanding of the vital aspects of what is happening in the human body has been obtained.

1908 - Ilya Mechnikov- did a lot outstanding discoveries allowed to continue the development of experimental medicine and biology of the twentieth century. I. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize jointly with the German biologist P. Ehrlich for developing the theory of immunity.

Research in this area and the creation of the theory took the academician 25 years. But it is thanks to these studies that the phenomena by which the human body becomes immune to many diseases have become clear.

Nobel Laureates in Economics

1975 - Leonid Kantorovich- the only Soviet economist and mathematician who deserved the highest rating for his economic activity. It was he who put mathematics at the service of production and thereby simplified the organization and planning of all production processes. Received an award for his great contribution to the theory of optimal allocation of resources.

Winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature

1933 - Ivan Bunin- received the title of laureate for two books: "The Life of Arseniev" and "The Gentleman from San Francisco." And, of course, for his contribution to the development of traditional Russian culture. artistic talent author, artistry and truthfulness, allowed to recreate in lyrical prose typically Russian multifaceted character.

1958 - Boris Pasternak- many times claimed the role of the Nobel Prize winner, even before the release of his world-famous novel "Doctor Zhivago", which became the decisive argument in choosing the winner.

The award was presented with the wording: "for greatest achievements in poetry and for maintaining the traditions of the great, mighty Russian novel."

However, Pasternak, being recognized in his homeland as an "anti-Soviet" element, being under heavy pressure from the Soviet authorities, was forced to refuse. The son of the great writer received the medal and diploma 30 years later.

1965 - Mikhail Sholokhov- unlike Pasternak and Solzhenitsyn, was actively supported by the government home country, his stories describing the life and way of life of the settlers small homeland writer - the Don Cossacks, were repeatedly published in all popular publications.

M. Sholokhov's books were popular among Soviet readers. In addition to the "Cossack" theme, the author has repeatedly written about the great patriotic war, the echoes of which were still alive in the memory of the entire Soviet people. However, he received recognition from foreign colleagues by writing the novel Quiet Don, which tells about the Don Cossacks in a difficult period of life, full of revolutions and wars. For this novel, he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

1970 - Alexander Solzhenitsyn, before the collapse of Soviet power was a banned author. He spent time in prison for criticizing the leadership of the USSR. His works were considered openly anti-Soviet and were not published on the territory of the USSR countries. Most famous works, such as "In the First Circle", "The Gulag Archipelago" and "The Cancer Ward", were published in the West and enjoyed very high popularity there.

For his contribution to the development of the traditions of Russian literature and the highly moral force of his works, Solzhenitsyn was awarded the Nobel Prize. However, he was not released for the presentation, forbidding him to leave the territory of the USSR. Representatives of the committee, who tried to present the award to the laureate at home, were also denied entry.

After 4 years, Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the country, and only then, with a great delay, was he able to be awarded a well-deserved award. Return to Russia, the writer was able after the collapse of Soviet power.

1987 - Joseph Brodsky, who was an outcast in the USSR and, under pressure from the authorities, deprived of citizenship, received the Nobel Prize, being a US citizen. With the wording: “for clarity of thought, for intense poetic and literary creativity". After receiving the award, the poet's works were no longer boycotted at home. For the first time, in the USSR, they were published in the popular publication Novy Mir.

Nobel Peace Prize Laureates

1975 - Andrey Sakharov Russian physicist, fighter for human rights. Being one of the founders of the first Soviet hydrogen bomb, actively fought for the signing of a moratorium on a ban on nuclear weapons testing, provoking an arms race. In addition to his many other merits, Sakharov is the author of the draft constitution of the USSR.

Being the leader of the human rights movement defending human rights and freedoms, he was recognized as a dissident and for his vigorous activity deprived of all awards and prizes previously awarded.

For the same activity he received the title of laureate in the Peace Prize category.

1990 - Mikhail Gorbachev - the first and only president of the USSR. During his activity, the following large-scale events were produced that affected the whole world:

• The so-called "Perestroika" - an attempt to reform Soviet system, to introduce into the USSR the leading signs of democracy: freedom of speech and the press, publicity, the possibility of free democratic elections, the reform of the socialist economy in the direction of a market economy model.
• End of the Cold War.
• The withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of Afghanistan.
• Rejection of all communist ideologies and further persecution of all dissidents.
• The collapse of the USSR as a result of its transition to democracy.

For all these merits, Mikhail Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Prize with the wording: “for his leading role in the peace processes that make up important part the life of the entire international community. Today, the personality of Mikhail Gorbachev is perceived Russian society very ambiguous and his activities during the collapse of the USSR causes a lot of heated debate. Whereas in the West his authority was and continues to be undeniable. He received recognition as a Nobel Peace Prize winner precisely in Western society, but not in Russia.

Over the past two weeks, the Nobel Committee has named scientists whose merits will be recognized. We tried to figure out who and for what received awards this year.

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Every year at the beginning of October, special attention is riveted to what is happening in the Swedish capital - Stockholm. During this period, the winners of the most prestigious scientific award, the Nobel Prize, are determined here. Over the past two weeks, the Nobel Committee has named scientists whose merits will be recognized. We tried to figure out who and for what received awards this year.

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This year's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine went to Japanese scientist Yoshinori Ohsumi for his discovery of the mechanisms of autophagy. Autophagy is a process in the cell that allows you to get rid of unnecessary or non-functioning components. The term “autophagy” is translated from Greek as “eating oneself”. The concept itself originated back in the 60s, but Osumi's experiments, which he began in the 90s, were a breakthrough. In the Nobel Committee, they are called studies that turned the paradigm of perception upside down.

The scientist conducted his experiments on yeast cells, but proved that similar processes occur in human body. As noted in the Nobel Committee, these experiments allowed us to take a fresh look at how “recycling” takes place on cellular level. “These discoveries have paved the way for understanding the fundamental importance of autophagy in many physiological processes, for example, adaptation to starvation or reaction to infections, ”the Nobel Committee website notes.

At the same time, scientists now know that a violation of autophagy is associated with serious diseases such as Parkinson's disease, diabetes or cancer. AT this moment medicines for various diseases are being actively developed, which will be built on knowledge of this process.

Osumi was born in 1945 in Tokyo. After several years in the US, he returned to Japan and founded research group. Since 2009, he has been a professor at the Tokyo Institute of Technology.

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This year's Physics Prize was awarded to three American scientists. The award was shared by physicists David Thuless, Duncan Haldan and Michael Kosterlitz. In their research, scientists used a complex mathematical method– topology – to the study of rare aggregate states matter, such as superconductivity, superfluidity, etc. “This year's laureates have opened the doors to unknown worlds where matter can acquire atypical states,” the award website says.

Scientists hope that these studies will open up new possibilities in materials science and electronics, for example, in the creation of new types of electrical engineering or superconductors, as well as in future quantum computers.

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The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to the Frenchman Jean-Pierre Savage, the American Fraser Stoddart and the Dutchman Bernard Feringa for creating "the world's smallest machines". At what not just small, but really miniature. Their invention is molecular machines. “A miniature elevator, artificial muscles, a minimotor. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded to Jean-Pierre Savage, Ser Fraser Stoddart and Bernard Fehringe for the design and manufacture of molecular machines.

The essence of the discovery of these scientists is to create molecules that can move in a controlled manner and perform certain tasks when they receive energy. The first step in this process was taken by Savage, connecting two ring-shaped molecules into a network, called catenanes, linked by a mechanical bond. “To be able to complete a task, a machine must be made up of parts that can move relative to each other. Two interlocking rings fulfilled exactly this requirement,” the Nobel Prize website notes.

The second step was carried out by Stoddart, and the third step was taken by Feringa, creating the first molecular motor. " Molecular machines, most likely, will be used in the creation of new materials, sensors and energy storage systems, ”the award website notes.

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This year there were 376 nominees for the Nobel Peace Prize. As a result, the committee decided to honor Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos. "The Norwegian Nobel Committee has decided to award the Nobel Peace Prize to Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos for his determined efforts to complete more than 50 years of civil war which cost the lives of at least 220,000 Colombians and forced about six million people to leave their homes,” the committee noted.

The Norwegian Nobel Committee believes that although peaceful agreement with the FARC group, which appeared as a result of negotiations initiated by Santos, was rejected by the majority of the inhabitants of Colombia in a referendum, but the attempts of the Colombian leader “bring closer the possibility of a peaceful end to the bloody conflict” and meet the spirit and will of Alfred Nobel.

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Swedish Bank Award for economic sciences In memory of Alfred Nobel, the so-called Nobel Prize in Economics, which was introduced in 1969, was awarded to two American scientists - Oliver Hart and Bengt Holmström for developing the theory of contracts. Contracts play an extremely important role in economic relations and are its link, the committee noted. The work of Hart and Holmström provided an essential foundation for analyzing the contracting process in order to make it as effective as possible.

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The award of the Nobel Prize in Literature was perhaps one of the biggest surprises of this year's award, surprising both the public and bookmakers. The winner of the award this year was the American singer, legend of rock music - Bob Dylan. The Nobel Committee noted the poetic merits of Dylan, awarding him a prize for "creating new poetic expressions within the great American song tradition."

Dylan, born in 1941 in New York, became famous in the 60s for his "protest" creativity and participation in the civil rights movement. The singer's discography includes more than 35 studio albums, including such well-known ones as The Times They Are a-Changin', The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan.

Chemist, engineer and inventor Alfred Nobel made his fortune primarily through the invention of dynamite and other explosives. At one time, Nobel became one of the richest on the planet.

In total, Nobel owned 355 inventions.

At the same time, the fame that the scientist enjoyed cannot be called good. In 1888 his brother Ludwig died. However, by mistake, journalists wrote in the newspapers about Alfred Nobel himself. Thus one day he read his own obituary in the press, entitled "Death Dealer Is Dead." This incident made the inventor think about what kind of memory he will remain in future generations. And Alfred Nobel changed his will.

The new will of Alfred Nobel offended the relatives of the inventor, who ended up with nothing.

A new will was read out to the millionaire in 1897.

According to this paper, all movable and immovable property of Nobel was to be converted into capital, which, in turn, should be placed in a reliable bank. The income from this capital must be divided annually by five equal parts and be awarded in the form of scientists who have made the most significant discoveries in the field of physics, chemistry, medicine; writers who created literary works; and also to those who have done the most significant "in rallying nations, abolishing slavery or reducing the size of armies and promoting peaceful congresses" (Peace Prize).

First laureates

Traditionally, the first award is given in the field of medicine and physiology. So the very first Nobel in 1901 was a bacteriologist from Germany, Emil Adolf von Behring, who was developing a vaccine against diphtheria.

Next, the laureate in physics receives the prize. Wilhelm Roentgen was the first to receive this award for the rays named after him.

The first Nobel Prize winner in chemistry was Jacob van't Hoff, who investigated thermodynamics for various solutions.

The first writer to receive this high honor was René Sully-Prudhom.

The Peace Prize is awarded last. In 1901 it was divided between Jean Henri Dunant and Frédéric Passy. Swiss humanist Dunant is the founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Frenchman Frederic Passy is the leader of the movement for peace in Europe.

The history of the Nobel Prize began in 1889, when the brother of the famous inventor of dynamite Alfred Nobel, Ludwig, died. Then the journalists mixed up the information and posted an obituary on the death of Alfred, calling him a death dealer in it. It was toga that the inventor decided to leave behind a softer legacy that would bring joy to those who really deserved it.

Instruction

After the announcement of the will, Nobel broke out - the relatives were against the fact that a lot of money (which, according to those in modern times) went to the fund, and did not go to them. But despite the ardent condemnation of the relatives of the inventor in 1900, the fund was still founded.

The first Nobel Prizes were awarded in 1901 in Stockholm. The winners were scientists and researchers from various fields: physics, medicine, literature. The very first person to receive such a valuable award was Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen for the discovery new form energy and rays, which received his name. Interestingly, Roentgen was not at the award ceremony. He learned that he became a laureate while in Munich. Moreover, laureates usually receive the prize second, but as a sign of deep respect and recognition of the importance of the discovery made by Rentegn, he was given the prize first.

The next nominee for the same prize was the chemist Jacob van't Hoff for his research in chemical dynamics. He proved that Avogadro's law is valid and valid for dilute solutions. In addition, van't Hoff experimentally proved that osmotic pressure in weak solutions obeys the laws of gas thermodynamics. In medicine, Emil Adolf von Behring received recognition and honor for his discovery of blood serum. This study, according to professional community, became important step in the treatment of diphtheria. This helped to save many human lives, which before that were simply doomed.