What is educated. What is the education system? The main tasks of pedagogical science

Compare various definitions (definitions) of the concept of education, highlight in each case the essential features that are assigned to it. Make a classification different types understanding of education.

"Home social function education is the transfer of experience accumulated by previous generations of people. Didactics of secondary school: Some problems of modern didactics / Ed. M.N. Skatkin.- M., 1982. S. 101.	“Education is not only the transfer of knowledge, the teaching of this knowledge. In the word education, the word “image” is hidden, that is, the formation of oneself.” Remezova I.I., Anishina T.P. The problem of man in the philosophy of education // Philosophy of education for the XXI century. M., 1992. S. 149.
“Education is the process and result of the assimilation of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities; a necessary condition for preparing a person for life and work. Brief pedagogical dictionary propagandist. M, 1984. S. 157.	Education is nothing but the culture of the individual. ... How many cultural values, so many types of education.” Hess&n SI. Fundamentals of Pedagogy. Introduction to Applied Philosophy. M., 1995. S. 35.
Education is the volume of systematized knowledge, skills, ways of thinking that the student has mastered. Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. M., 1996. S. 25.	“... Mastering the system of knowledge of the basic sciences and the skills and abilities corresponding to them, the formation scientific outlook and the development of cognitive forces and abilities - this is education, and the main way to get it is training. Danilov M.A., Esipov B.P. Didactics. M., 1957.
“Education in this Law is understood as a purposeful process of upbringing and education in the interests of a person, society, state, accompanied by a statement of the achievement by a citizen (student) of educational levels (educational qualifications) established by the state.” Law of the Russian Federation "On Education"// Collection of laws of the Russian Federation. M., 1999. S. 224.	"Education (from Russian- the creation of an image) is the spiritual image of a person, which is formed under the influence of moral and spiritual values. Bondarevskaya E.V.. Kulnevich SV. Pedagogy: personality in humanistic theories and systems of education. Rostov-n/D, 1999. S. 36.

The concept of "training". Most often, learning is understood as "a joint purposeful activity of a teacher and students, during which the development of the individual, his education and upbringing" 1 . The activities of the teacher and the student in the learning process are divided very conditionally, since learning is a continuous process of their joint work.

Traditionally, there are two components in teaching - teaching and learning. Under teaching refers to the activity of a teacher in transferring knowledge, skills, methods of activity, life experience, etc. to students. Doctrine here - the process of acquiring the learning content transmitted by the teacher by the student. Teaching in traditional education dominates teaching, which is reflected in the names of private didactics (for example, "method of teaching history"). The focus is then on the teaching (transmission) of educational material, and not the activities of students.

The paradigm of learning as teaching and learning has a long history and continues to this day. The reason is that for a long time the teacher was the main source of information that he communicated to students, teaching them various sciences. Until now, the terms “give knowledge”, “give education” are used, and in relation to the interaction of teachers they say “exchange experience”. Understanding learning as a "transfer" mechanism of some content from the teacher to the students suggests the formative influence of the teacher on the student.

Education- an organized process of interaction between students and teachers, aimed at solving educational problems, as a result of which the student acquires knowledge, skills, and develops personal qualities.

At the same time, there are other understandings of learning that deny the possibility of "transfer of education". Knowledge, skills and abilities are not material objects that can be transferred. They are formed as a result of the activity of the student, in the course of his own activity. Experience is also incommunicable - empirical knowledge of reality, carried out by those who ultimately own the results of their activities.

The learning process is accompanied and characterized by the internal personal changes of the student, his development. Education, which has the main goal of developing the physical, cognitive, moral and other abilities of students on the basis of their individual opportunities, is called developmental education. teacher in this case not so much transfers knowledge to children, but organizes their learning activities in relation to the subject being studied. The psychological and pedagogical substantiation of developmental education in our country was carried out by L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, P.Ya. Galperin, L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov and implemented in practice by their followers.

The paradigm of the priority of the goals and values of the student, the primary role of his activity and the secondary activity of the teacher as the organizer of the educational process is reflected in various types student-centered learning. Learning in this case is understood as Team work student and teacher, which is aimed at the individual self-realization of the student and the development of his personal qualities in the course of mastering the studied disciplines. Modern domestic scientists are engaged in the development of psychological, pedagogical and didactic foundations of student-centered learning: Sh.A. Amonashvili, E.V. Bondarevskaya, St. Kulnevich, V.V. Serikov, A.V. Khutorskoy, I.S. Yakimanskaya and others.

At the heart of the student-centered learning paradigm is the recognition of the unique essence of each student and the individuality of his learning trajectory. The role of the teacher is not to transfer knowledge, skills and abilities, but to organize the appropriate educational environment in which the student learns based on personal potential and using the appropriate learning technology.

Depending on the applied educational technologies personality-oriented learning has varieties: nature-based, problem-based, heuristic, etc.

The student-centered meaning of education can be embedded in any type of education. For example, programmed or distance learning may or may not be based on a personality orientation. Personal orientation is one of the criteria for learning of any type or kind. If a person (student, teacher), his natural, personal and individual characteristics are taken into account in the design, implementation and diagnosis of the educational process and are able to influence him, then we speak of humanistic student-centered learning.

Discussion. Proponents of learning as knowledge transfer sometimes also call their approach student-centered, since they adapt the educational material intended for assimilation in accordance with the characteristics of different groups of students, for example, they divide the material into levels of complexity. Justify or refute these arguments.

Thus, the content of the concept of "training" depends on what pedagogical paradigm underlies education. Formative learning of the “transfer” type differs from developing or nature-friendly in that it is based on the formula “with the subject to the children”, while student-centered learning is based on the principle “with the children to the subject”.

Study and development. It would seem that a humanistic orientation towards the development of students should prevail in a society that puts forward a person as a primary value. Why is the learning process still understood as equipping the student with knowledge and developing the appropriate skills and abilities? This is explained by many reasons, for example, the fact that these parameters are easily verifiable using public tools - tests, tests, verification tasks. With their help, the level of assimilation by students of the material “transferred” to them is easily and quickly checked. In order to assess the effectiveness of training individually for each student, taking into account his initial level of development, the degree of formation of his abilities, knowledge and skills, it is required special system diagnostics and control, which is still unusual for a mass school. For example, such a system includes individual programs learning, personal achievement journals, student portfolio.

Consider the didactic concepts that characterize the personal nature of learning.

An adequate characteristic of student-centered learning is activity. Activity in the pedagogical sense is a broader concept than knowledge, skills and abilities (KAS), since it involves motivation, assessment and other learning parameters that reflect its subjective-personal nature. We are just interested in activity because it leads to educational change and personal increments of the student in relation to himself and to the studied disciplines.

The following concepts are used to characterize the educational activity of a student:

- study of, meaning "to comprehend by teaching, to assimilate in the process of learning";

- assimilation, interpreted as “the main way for an individual to acquire socio-historical experience”;

- cognition, i.e. "the process of people's creative activity that forms their knowledge."

The concepts of "study" and "assimilation" refer, as a rule, to external objects independent of the student - knowledge or information, and do not imply his activities to create his own educational product. If we are talking about productive learning, then the concepts of “cognition”, “research”, “creation”, “composition”, “compilation”, “development”, etc. are more consistent with it.

Another essential characteristic of learner-centered learning is its productivity, i.e., the creation by the student in the subjects studied of specific educational products - a natural-science version, a mathematical problem, an essay, crafts, paintings, etc.

The productive orientation of learning does not mean that it is devoid of non-creative activities. Studying the reality, the student, simultaneously with the creation of an educational product, also performs reproductive activities, for example, learns specific methods of cognition, gets acquainted with the existing cultural achievements, that is, studies them.

The simultaneous creation of one's own educational product and the assimilation of achievements already created by mankind is expressed by the concept "development". In education, this concept has the meaning of active creative penetration of the student into the educational field or academic subject. Both reality itself and knowledge about it are subject to development. Therefore, the term "development" most fully reflects the process of student-centered learning and related educational activities.

Education and development. The development of a student is understood as the process of internal changes in his physical, psychological, spiritual forces that ensure his self-realization. The nervous system, psyche, personal qualities of the student change quantitatively and qualitatively throughout his life and in a certain way are associated with learning.

Development- the process of internal change of a person, ensuring the realization of his life potential and purpose.

Among scientists - psychologists and educators - there are three points of view on the relationship between development and learning:

1) learning and development are two independent processes (3. Freud, J. Piaget);

2) learning is identical to development (W. James, E. Trondike);

3) learning can follow development or get ahead of it (L.S. Vygotsky).

AT recent times in the domestic school, the concept of “developmental education”, based on the idea of L.S. Vygotsky that learning should lead development, relying not only on the mature functions of the child, but also on those that are still maturing.

To explain his model, L.S. Vygotsky introduced the concepts "zone of actual development"- the level of development already achieved by the child, at which he can solve intellectual problems completely independently, without the help of an adult, and "zone of proximal development" - the level of development, which is found not in an independent, but in a joint solution of intellectual problems of a certain complexity with an adult. According to this model, what a child does today in cooperation with a teacher, tomorrow he will be able to do independently.

This model served as the core for creating the concept of developmental education (L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov). One of the shortcomings of this approach is the underestimation of the role of student creativity in learning. A student who is not given the opportunity to solve an emerging problem without the help of a teacher does not develop the necessary creative qualities in himself.

The ability of a student to take an independent step in the zone of his proximal development without the help of a teacher is evidence of the transition from developing education to self-developing, heuristic. The role of the teacher in this case is no longer in jointly with the student solving problems that are difficult for him, but in arming him with tools for independently solving them.

Training and education. Education is most often understood as the process and result of the interaction of the educator with the pupil for the purpose of his personal development, the assimilation of social norms and cultural property, preparation for self-realization in the society in which he lives.

The connection between education and upbringing is no less obvious than the connection between education and development. Many educators, starting with Herbart, talk about nurturing education, the result of which is the socialization of the student, the formation of his personal qualities that correspond to certain social needs.

Upbringing- the process of human interaction with the environment (including the educator), which ensures the assimilation of certain norms and ways of behavior in society.

Not every system of education sets educational tasks as the main ones. This feature is characteristic, first of all, for humanistic educational systems, such as the Amonashvili school, cooperation pedagogy, Waldorf pedagogy; as well as for didactic systems based on sciences and activities of a social and social nature: ecology, history, philosophy.

Various academic subjects, as a rule, play a leading role in the education of certain personal qualities of a student, mathematics - accuracy, logic, consistency and systematicity, natural science - observation and cognitive ™, painting - imagery and artistry.

At the same time, assigning certain educational tasks to individual subjects is not rigid. So, mathematics can bring up not only systematic or algorithmic actions in the student’s actions, but also carry a humanitarian function, fulfill cultural tasks, and instill in students a sense of beauty.

Education and creativity. The training and development of a person are interconnected with his creativity: only those who create and create new things (for themselves or for others) develop, who go beyond the predetermined, realize potential opportunities your inner world.

But creativity is possible only in conditions of freedom, at least freedom of choice. A creative result can be expected only when the student is provided with the right to choose the meaning and goals of his education, educational trajectory, the topic of a specific creative work, the form of its implementation and protection, when the student's own view of the problem is encouraged. Freedom in education is necessary for the student for the sake of his development and creativity.

Learning as a productive process requires students to have creative abilities. Under creativity the complex capabilities of a student in performing activities and actions aimed at creating new educational products are understood.

Exploring the nature of creativity, scientists proposed to call the ability corresponding to creative activity, creativity. Creativity is an integrative ability that incorporates systems of interrelated abilities-elements. For example, creative abilities are imagination, associativity, fantasy, daydreaming.

Creativity is not the only ability that provides educational activities. Since, as a result of creativity, the student certainly has cognition, then along with creative activity, cognitive activity is also carried out. In order for creative and cognitive processes to be expressed in the general educational results of the student, organizational activity is necessary, carried out on the basis of his respective abilities. The organizational activity abilities of a student include goal-setting, purposefulness, rule-making, self-determination, reflection, etc.

Thus, creative learning relies on at least three integrative abilities of the student: creative, cognitive and organizational activity. Together, they ensure the creation of educational products by the student.

Education focused on the productive creative activity of students is called heuristic. According to the heuristic type of learning, the student participates in the creation of not only educational products for the studied courses, but also in the planning and implementation of an individual educational trajectory.

Freedom and task in learning. The relationship between freedom and task in learning in different models of learning manifests itself in different ways. External order-oriented education (social, state, parental) requires the teacher to take formative actions in relation to the student. Learning, on the other hand, is focused on identifying and realizing the inner essence of the student, involves the creation by the teacher of an environment that would be most favorable for the development of the child's abilities. Such education cannot be “given”, it can only be provided in one way or another.

Education focused on creating a harmonious natural environment ensures the self-realization of the child's personal potential and encourages him to search for his own results in educational areas. Such a learning model is based on an active anthropological position: the student is not just a “seed” of a plant unknown to the teacher, but a seed capable of providing and correcting its growth.

In accordance with the laws of dialectics, freedom is unthinkable without predetermination. The student's freedom of self-expression presupposes the given methodology of his activity. The freedom of the student in education means the independence of his activity. A student receives a high-quality creative product when, with the help of a teacher, he masters the basics of creative activity. Therefore, it is not enough to give children freedom, they must be taught to act. It is this task that the didactics of student-centered learning realizes.

Self-determination block Theme. Knowledge and development

Compare the statements in the first two columns of the table and offer your opinions in the third column.

Learning is teaching and learning	Learning is learning and teaching.	Training is...
"To teach Peter math, you need to be good at math."	"To teach Peter math, you need to know math and Peter."	"In order to teach Peter mathematics,..."
As the teacher is, so are the students. A “strong” teacher always has “strong” students.	If there is a student, there will be a teacher for him. The source of knowledge is in the student, the teacher only helps him to realize himself.	The role of the student in learning... The role of the teacher in learning...
Strict adherence to a scientifically based approach to the presentation, consolidation and application of educational material in practice guarantees its full assimilation by students.	Learning through research is time-consuming and results-inefficient because students cannot be guaranteed quality results. There is no fundamental and systematic nature in such training.	For learning to be effective...
The basis of the student's creative activity is the basic knowledge firmly acquired by him. Having learned to apply them in practice, the student is able to go further in his work and, if necessary, create something new, relying on the baggage he has.	Well-acquired knowledge is a hindrance to the creativity of the student, because they form stereotypes in his thinking and subsequent activities. Ignorance of generally accepted information helps the student to create something really new. The creativity of the student is necessary already before the acquisition of knowledge.	The ratio of knowledge and creativity in learning can be as follows:
The main planned result of studying at school is equipping the student with basic knowledge for his subsequent life and professional activities. The task of the school is to give students quality education based on fundamental knowledge.	The task of the school is to develop the student's abilities and teach him to act in the world around him. Instead of a "sum of knowledge", the student masters a set of methods of activity. If necessary, he will always be able to find the missing knowledge or recreate it to solve an emerging problem.	The main purpose of school education is...

Didactics uses philosophical categories, general scientific, methodological, pedagogical, psychological, physiological and other concepts.

Didactics as a scientific theory is described by a system of concepts of the methodological level: meaning, goals, principles, patterns of learning, content, technologies, forms and methods, teaching aids, a system for monitoring and evaluating learning outcomes, etc.

The fundamental didactic concepts are the concepts of "education" and "training", which are revealed with the help of interrelated concepts: teaching, learning, studying, mastering, etc.

The concept of "education" characterizes various aspects of reality. It can refer to an individual or a class of students, an entire school, society, state. Education reflects both the process and the result of learning. Education is also understood as a system educational structures- educational institutions, various forms and types of education.

Among the different understandings of education, two opposite ones stand out: education as a process of influencing a student (“to give education”) and education as a process of educating a student with the organizing role of a teacher (“to be in education”).

The concept of "training" is revealed depending on the chosen meaning of education. In formative pedagogy, learning consists of two main activities - teaching and learning: the teacher transfers knowledge, skills and abilities to the students, and the students learn them. In student-centered pedagogy, learning is a joint activity of the student and the teacher, which is aimed at the individual self-realization of the student and the development of his personal qualities in the course of mastering the subjects studied.

The role of the teacher personal orientation- the organization of the educational environment in which the student is educated, relying on his own potential and using the appropriate learning technology.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. Formulate the feelings and sensations that you have as a result of studying this topic. Name your main

results.

2. What contradictions in the conceptual structure of didactics did you find?

3. Give two or three interpretations of the concept of "education", compare them with each other and find common features different definitions.

4. Define the concept of "education", which would go beyond the scope of pedagogy and cover the processes studied in other sciences, for example, in history (formation of the state), geography (formation of mountains).

5. First grader came up with math problem on the operations of addition and subtraction. When compiling the condition of the problem, he used the principle already known to him: “it was ..., it flew in (flew away) ..., how much has become?” The student replaced people or animals with birds and received a new task condition. Assess the area, level and specificity of the student's creativity. Is there mathematical creativity in this educational product of the student?

6. Formulate questions, suggestions and wishes for yourself for the further period of studying the course of didactics.

Didactic workshop Topic 2. Didactic concepts

1. Any objects, including didactic ones, can be translated into the language of signs, symbols, images. Such a translation allows you to better understand and study the object itself. Draw a symbol of education as a sign, image or drawing. Comment on the resulting symbol and its specific features.

2. Using a sheet of paper, thread and tape, make material model education. Please provide an explanation for this model. Submit your work for group discussion during the workshop. Answer questions from colleagues about your model.

3. Suggest a definition of the concept of "education". Write this definition down and discuss it in the workshop. Compare your definition with definitions provided by other students.

4. Similarly, construct a symbol, model and definition of the didactic concepts "learning", "teaching", "learning", "teaching", "mastering".

LITERATURE

Andreev V.I. Pedagogy: A training course for creative self-development. 2nd ed. Kazan, 2000.

Bondarevskaya E.V. Humanistic paradigm of student-centered education//Pedagogy. 1997. No. 4.

Gessen SI. Fundamentals of Pedagogy. Introduction to Applied Philosophy. M., 1995.

Kupisevich. Ch. Fundamentals of general didactics / Per. from Polish. O.V. Dolzhenko. M., 1986.

New Educational Values: A Thesaurus for Teachers and School Psychologists. Issue. 1 /Ed.-stat. N.B. Krylov. M., 1995.

New values of education. M., 2006. Issue. 1-2(25-26). pp.194-211.

Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. M., 2006.

Polonsky V.M. Dictionary of education and pedagogy. M., 2004.

Seri/soy 5.5. Student-centered education//Pedagogy. - 1994.-

Khutorskoy A.V. Methodology of personality-oriented learning. How to train everyone differently? M., 2005.

Khutorskoy A.V. Development of Giftedness of Schoolchildren: Methods of Productive Learning. M., 2000.

§ 3. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE THEORY OF LEARNING

National idea in education. The basis of education in the Russian school are, first of all, those deep national ideas national history and culture, which play a unifying, inspiring and educational role in society. They serve as the basis for the construction of domestic pedagogy and didactics.

the idea of a Russian national education substantiated by the founder of scientific pedagogy in Russia K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870), who believed that the main goals of education and upbringing are determined by the national character. Philosophical understanding of the originality of the Russian character allows us to find the foundations of the education corresponding to it.

The idea is from the Greek. idea: what is seen, the image. A term denoting meaning, meaning, essence.

Education built on domestic ideas and traditions will always meet the objectives of national development. The tasks, organizational forms or content of such education may be different, but the resulting result of human education is determined by the basic philosophical meanings on which the educational process is built.

If we accept that meaning and the goal of education is the developing person, then from the point of view of the national idea, the education of a person is such a state and result when he orients his feelings, mind, body and will towards self-realization and self-development, supported by the desire to acquire new knowledge, believe in the best, do good, fulfilling his destiny before himself, his family, fatherland. The creation of a man of culture is the meaning of national education. The development of the inner potential of each person is the goal of public education. The highest ideal of the education of the people and each of its representatives is the spiritual state of the nation, self-awareness of the greatness of the multinational Russian society, which is a condition for the economic, material and cultural prosperity of the entire people.

Discussion. How can the best examples of foreign pedagogical thought be used in domestic education so that the results domestic education retained their national identity?

Philosophical premises of Russian education are contained, first of all, in the works of Russian thinkers. The characteristic features of Russian philosophy, according to N.O. Lossky, are cosmologism, sophiology, catholicity, metaphysics, religiosity, intuitionism, positivism, realism (ontologism) 1 .

The listed features are inherent in the complex of teachings on the interaction between man and the world, created by a galaxy of world-class Russian scientists, including: L.N. Tolstoy, N.F. Fedorov, Vl.S. Solovyov, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, P.A. Florensky, V.I. Vernadsky, A.L. Chizhevsky, N.A. Berdyaev, D.L. Andreev, N.A. Umov and others.

In a number of studies, the totality of ideas, teachings and works of these thinkers is called Russian cosmism, since this philosophy is based on the fundamental principle: man is like the universe, i.e. the microcosm is like the macrocosm. The purpose of man is to move into his home - the Universe. This is possible, since global processes are to a certain extent identical to local ones, changes in a person correspond to changes in society, changes at all levels of organization of nature and society are similar and are associated with universal changes.

Let us consider those elements of the teachings of Russian philosophers that have didactic significance.

The image of a man. From the standpoint of anthropocentrism, the primary source of all changes, including global ones, is the person himself, taken in the totality of his potentialities, manifestations and activities. In relation to education, the activity of the student is identical to the activity of the teacher and the school as a whole, the school - to society, society - to the world, the world - to the Universe. Thus, the changes of an individual person correspond to the changes of the whole Universe. Hence the corresponding mission of education - to ensure the change and development of people, consistent with universal tasks and processes.

Image- a subjective picture of the world or its fragments, including the subject himself, other people, the spatial environment and the temporal sequence of events.

A person included in the educational system with goals related to his introduction into the world around him puts his worldview orientation in a special way and realizes his personal potential. Individual trajectory his education is a system of relations with nature, culture, space, with himself. For self-determination and movement in the surrounding world, he masters a set of methods of activity, including reflexive ones, necessary for him to ensure, evaluate and correct the ongoing education.

Main features ennobled man the image that the future School should prepare are described by the Russian philosopher and poet D. L. Andreev (1906-1959) in his book "Rose of the World" 1:

mental shape characterized by intellectual independence, a free and happy feeling of admiration for the phenomena of the Deep and the phenomena of the Great.

Aesthetic appearance will manifest itself in a developed taste, knowledge and understanding of the arts of the past, the need for artistic impressions and one's own creativity, in a sense of admiration for the phenomena of the Beautiful.

Moral character the new man is characterized by active kindness to others, a sense of universal human unity, a sense of cosmic unity, a sense of reverence for the manifestations of the High.

Religious appearance characterized inner work over the opening of the organs of spiritual perception, a sense of life as a mystery, knowledge of religious forms of the past and present, the ability to believe in all religions, that is, to understand the experience and teaching of each of them as a reflection of one of the series of spiritual reality, the need for one's own participation in religious life and creativity.

bodily appearance characterized by friendship with light elements, a slender physique, plastic movements, an open luminous face.

Particular attention in pedagogy D.L. Andreev is given to the development of the internal inclinations of the nature of students. “In general, creativity is carefully nurtured and encouraged in every possible way: the smallest sprouts of musical, verbal, stage, architectural, pictorial, philosophical, religious creativity are nurtured” 2 .

main type secondary school D.L. Andreev considers a boarding college located outside the city. Education in it takes 12-13 years for 7 months a year. Among the academic disciplines - General history religions, political history, the history of arts and sciences, i.e., an orientation towards the "inclusion" of the student in cultural and historical processes.

The meaning of education. One of the dominant ideas of Russian philosophers is The universal scale of human destiny. From a pedagogical point of view, you can move your inner world into the outer world through your own activity, creating creations similar to those that surround you. For example, to comprehend the depths of nature and the secrets of the universe allow independent reflection, research, treatises; writing fairy tales, rhymes, riddles helps to penetrate into oral folk art and learn its basics; you can enter the world of real mathematics through your own mathematical discoveries prime numbers and forms.

Meaning- ideal content, idea, essence, purpose, value. The integral content of an utterance, which is not reducible to the meanings of its parts, but which itself determines these meanings.

The semantic educational ideas of Russian philosophers are as follows:

Education is not so much an "order" of society as a mission of a person in the Universe. Man is equal to the world, therefore, his destiny is to enter his world. The introduction occurs through the own productive activity of the emerging person. The products of his activity are adequate to the content of the corresponding spheres of cognizable reality.

The connection of a person with the world is determined at the level of their common areas: biosphere- spheres of the living (V.I. Vernadsky), noosphere- realms of the mind pneumatosphere- spheres of the spirit (P.A. Florensky). In connection with the development modern means telecommunications and Internet resources, we can talk about infosphere- the field of information.

There is a fairly clear definition in Russian legislation explaining what education is. It should be understood as a purposeful process of training and education in human, public and state interests. It is noteworthy that in the Law in the first place is the development of the individual.

The concept of the learning process

The Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia also explains what education is. Here the concept is somewhat broader. Education is a process of socialization, pedagogically organized and carried out in the personal and public interests.

Types of training

First of all, vocational and general education are separated. In the latter case, it is supposed to obtain uniform knowledge, regardless of the future specialization of a person. What's happened professional education in this case? It is understood as a learning process, oriented in its content to the needs and conditions of a particular specialization. Of course, this process also includes a general educational element. A student in a specialized institution, along with a professional education, also receives a basic general education. Even in the curriculum of the university there are some basic, general disciplines. These include, for example, philosophy, psychology, pedagogy, law, economics, and others. The Law gives the concept of specialized and general training programs. They, along with educational standards, the system of institutions that implement them, and the governing bodies, constitute the entire educational network in Russia.

Levels of the learning process

What is education in modern Russia? It should be said that the education system has undergone significant changes throughout its existence. Today in Russia, general education is divided into preschool, primary, general basic, and complete secondary. Along with this, there are also specialized ones. You can understand the difference between the levels of training by considering some definitions. For example, what is preschool education? This is an activity that is considered the development, education, upbringing of children. early age. And what is This is the process of obtaining general knowledge aimed at the comprehensive development of children. This stage is between the initial and the highest level of knowledge. Those who have received secondary general or vocational education have access to the next level. After graduating from a school, technical school or college, a person enters a university. This may be followed by postgraduate education (doctoral or postgraduate studies). There are also optional forms of knowledge acquisition. What is additional education is easy to understand. Optional forms include various optional subjects, hobby groups, courses for adults that provide advanced training. Returning to the question of what secondary education is, it should be noted that it is this stage that is considered by many teachers to be the foundation that allows the student to develop his abilities in accordance with interests, while gaining basic knowledge.

Types of pedagogical institutions in Russia

Many experts believe that the kind of education that citizens receive in our country contributes to the most comprehensive development of the individual. There are various institutions to ensure the highest quality teaching process. Primary education young children receive in preschool. These include nurseries and kindergartens. However, it should be noted that, due to the fact that they are not able to cover all children today, the main responsibility for ensuring the initial education of the child falls on the family. School is the next step. This institution provides or complete education for children. The name "school" should also be understood as progymnasiums, gymnasiums, lyceums and others. Some institutions practice in-depth study individual items. In Russia, there are also institutions for the education of children, the possibilities of which are limited.

Specialized, higher educational institutions

There are vocational and technical institutions and schools in Russia. The educational process in institutions is aimed at obtaining the student's initial general knowledge in certain specialties. Citizens receive education in colleges and other similar institutions. Universities offer day and evening education. In these institutions, students receive higher education in accordance with the chosen specialization. There are also educational institutions for additional education of children and adults.

Forms of the pedagogical process

Citizens receive education, both higher and secondary, mainly in daytime classes. Along with this, there is evening uniform learning. Externat is considered relatively new. This form of education involves the independent study of certain subjects, followed by examinations. Today, unlike in previous years, access to external studies has been significantly expanded. Part-time education is very popular. It is noteworthy that every year the number of part-time students is increasing. This indicates the interest of citizens in obtaining higher education. Interest is shown not only by school graduates, but also by the working part of the youth. At the same time, many seek to get a second higher education. Gaining popularity and To gain knowledge in this way, computer technology, satellite television, and the Internet are used. The spread of distance learning is mainly due to the computerization of pedagogical institutions.

Mandatory, variability of the learning process

Under the variability of education should be understood the ability of the learning process to meet the capabilities and abilities of different groups of students and the personal characteristics of each. For Russia, this trend is considered one of the main ones. Another direction, being opposite, but at the same time inextricably linked with the first, is the pedagogical process. Within the framework of this topic, the learning process in state and non-state educational institutions is considered. Speaking of this, it is necessary to define what is municipality. This definition should be understood as a free form of education in public educational institutions.

Problems of Pedagogy

There is a single state standard- the level of necessary knowledge that the student should receive in the process. Recently, it has often been said that the Russian education system is experiencing serious problems. This is explained by the influence of the demographic reforms carried out in the country. However, these assertions are without foundation. According to statistics, in recent years the level of education has not only not decreased, but, on the contrary, has increased. This suggests that such a municipality that exists in Russia is a well-organized pedagogical system. Of course, some educational institutions replaced others, and this process continues to this day. For example, with the development of industry, more skilled workers are required. In this regard, secondary and higher specialized education is becoming more and more popular today.

The process and result of the acquisition by a person of skills, abilities and theoretical knowledge. The word "form" has two meanings. Firstly, it means "to set a pattern and establish prescriptions," and secondly, "to form the inclinations that already exist." The knowledge that enters O. is not separated from the cognizer as an object lying outside him, but he is directly affected by what he cognizes. Any kind of technical knowledge can be learned, and even by one's own choice Moral knowledge, as an indispensable component of morality, is not directly learned by a person and cannot be unlearned either. O. is an internal process, the process of creating "images" and / or "patterns" that a person follows in his life. The result of O. is not presented as a technical intention, but stems from the internal process of formation and O. and therefore is constantly in a state of continuation and development. O. cannot be the goal itself, it is a kind of self-increasing process. This is its difference from the mere cultivation of inclinations from which it originated. The cultivation of inclinations is the development of something given; here the means to achieve the goal are exercise and diligence, which have become a habit. In the process of O., on the contrary, that on which and thanks to which one receives O., must be assimilated entirely and completely. In this respect, O. includes everything that it touches, but all this does not enter as a means that loses its functions. On the contrary, in the O. received nothing disappears, but everything is preserved. "is a truly historical concept, and it is precisely this historical character of "preservation" that must be discussed in order to understand the essence humanities"(G. Gadamer). Historically, the formation of the phenomenon of O. went in the process of forming mechanisms for the preservation and transmission of socially significant content from generation to generation. For the first time, it was Plato in European culture in the dialogue "Protagoras" who raised the question of the possibility of transmitting virtue to subsequent generations. What an oriental sage and the teacher could doubt that he should teach the skills of "living together"? On the contrary, he taught and demanded an unambiguous perception of his knowledge. "Let this book of the law not depart from your mouth," says the Old Testament. And Plato's Socrates doubted that Protagoras can teach the young man Hippocrates something. In the course of the discussion, Socrates comes to the conclusion: in order for the state to “be”, there must be something united, to which everyone participates, this is virtue. And by the highest virtue, he meant knowledge, because there is nothing higher knowledge of what is bad and what is good. If virtue is knowledge, then it can be learned. For the first time, the concept of O., according to M. Ha Yidegger, was essentially thought out by Plato in the "State". Heidegger believes that Plato's "Parable of the Cave" is intended to reveal what the Greeks understood as paideia, i.e. O. The parable tells how the prisoner, freeing himself from the shackles, leaves the cave, where he saw only the shadows of things in the flickering of the behind the back of the fire, and gains knowledge of the truly existing when passing to the surface. The narration unfolds in a chain of images passing into each other, embodying the meaning of O. The cave-like room in the parable is an image of the daily residence of people; fire in the cave - image vault of heaven , under which people live, surrounded by imaginary things, but which they perceive as true reality. Those things named in the parable, which are revealed to the eye outside the cave, are, on the contrary, an image of that in which the actual being of all that exists consists. The transitions from the cave into daylight and from there back into the cave require each time a change in the habit of the eyes from darkness to light and from light to darkness. And just as the bodily eye only slowly and gradually gets used to either light or darkness, so the soul also does not immediately, and only in the appropriate sequence of steps, get used to the realm of being. Such habituation requires that the whole soul turn in the main direction of its aspiration, just as the eye can look correctly only when the body has assumed the appropriate position. This "transition" serves as a symbolic expression of the change that must take place in the unfolding of what is already inherent in the human being. Such retraining and accustoming a human being to one or another area allotted to him, Heidegger notes, is the essence of what Plato calls paideia. Paideia means a guide to change the whole person in his being. Heidegger believes that the word "education" comes closest to paideia. First, it is O. in the sense of an unfolding formation. Such a "formation," on the other hand, "forms," proceeding all the time from an anticipatory proportion with a determinant species, which is therefore called a prototype. O. is, at the same time, both the formation and guidance of a certain model. "The Parable of the Cave" does not end with a description of the achievement of the highest level of ascent from the cave, but tells of the descent of the liberated back into the cave, because the constant overcoming of ignorance belongs to the essential moment of O.. The parable names the sun, towards which the prisoner is directed, as an image for the idea of goodness. Good among the Greeks was not understood narrowly morally, it is "that which for something makes another fit for something." After Nietzsche, this concept can be understood as what is the "highest value" for people. According to M. Foucault, Plato's ascent to virtue was closely connected with self-care: "I am obliged to take care of myself in order to become able to manage other people and the policy." Therefore, self-care must become an art. Self-care is impossible without a mentor. And the position of the mentor himself is determined by the concern for what care his ward shows about himself. Showing disinterested love for the young man, the mentor gives the principle and model of the care that the young man should exercise in relation to himself as a subject. "Self-care" takes its form and completion, firstly, in self-knowledge, and secondly, by the fact that self-knowledge as the highest and independent expression of one's "I" provides access to the truth; finally, the comprehension of truth allows at the same time to recognize the existence divine beginning in itself. "Taking care of yourself" leads to self-realization, which becomes necessary against the background of mistakes, against the background of bad habits, against the background of all kinds of deformations. Thus, we are talking here, rather, about correction, about liberation, rather than about the formation of knowledge. It is in this direction that self-realization will develop in the future, which seems significant. Further, if a person has not succeeded in "correcting" in his youth, this can always be achieved in a more mature age. To become what a person has never been before is the main theme of self-realization. For the implementation of the latter, the existence of another is required. Ignorance cannot go beyond its own limits, and memory is needed to make the transition from ignorance to knowledge (a transition that is always made through another person). According to Foucault, there are three types of relation to the other that are necessary for the formation of a young person. 1. Leading by example: the example of great men and power traditions form a pattern of behavior. 2. Instruction with knowledge: the transfer of knowledge, manners and principles, 3. Instruction in difficulties: the skill of getting out of a difficult situation (Socratic art). From now on, the mentor (philosopher) acts as an executor of the transformation of the individual in his formation as a subject. Foucault distinguishes between pedagogy and psychogogy. By pedagogy he understands the transmission of such a truth, the function of which is to supply the subject with some kind of relationship, abilities, knowledge that he did not have before and which he will have to receive by the end of the pedagogical relationship. From this point on, psychogogy could be called the transmission of such a truth, the function of which would not be to provide a person with any kind of relationship, but rather to change the mode of existence of the subject. In Christianity, in the light of what has been said, the scheme of relations between knowledge and self-care consists, firstly, in the constant turning from the truth of the text to self-knowledge, secondly, in the interpretation of the method of interpretation as a way of self-knowledge, and, finally, in the position of the goal, which is self-denial. In this regard, there is a gap between psychogogy and pedagogy, since the soul under psychological influence, that is, the guided soul, is required to speak the truth that only it alone can say, which it alone possesses. In Christian spirituality, the guided subject must be present within the true judgment as the object of its own true judgment. In the judgment of the follower, the subject of the utterance must be the referent of the utterance. Finally, the modern discourse of O. was formed by the 18th century. - during the Age of Enlightenment. The very concept of O. acquired a categorical status and dissociated itself from such concepts as "natural formation" or "mountain building". From now on, O. became closely associated with the concept of culture and began to designate a specific human way of transforming natural inclinations and capabilities. The final processing of the concept, stimulated by Herder (understanding O. "growth towards humanity"), was completed in the period between Kant and Hegel. Kant does not yet use the word "education" in the sense indicated above, but speaks of a "culture of abilities" (or "natural inclinations"), which in this capacity represents an act of freedom of the acting subject. O., according to Kant, concerns the formation of morality and refers to practical education, in contrast to school O. or training (giving the acquisition of skills) and pragmatic education (serving to achieve rationality). Among Kant's moral obligations is the stimulation of one's talent. This requirement in relation to oneself in Hegel already arises in line with judgments about self-education and education, which ceases to be equivalent to "culture", that is, the development of abilities or talents; O. includes the concept of "image", which has two-sidedness, because, as we have seen, it simultaneously carries the meanings of a reflection, cast, and sample. According to Hegel, who completes the formation of the concept under consideration, the distinctive ability of the subject is that he breaks with the immediate and natural, and this is required of him by the spiritual side of his being. And therefore he needs O., in the ascent to the universal. The ascent to the universal does not mean only theoretical O., but also includes practical, and embraces the essential definition of human intelligence as a whole. The general essence of human O. lies in the fact that a person makes himself a spiritual being in all respects. It requires sacrificing the general to the particular, which implies the curbing of drives and thus freedom from their objects and freedom for one's own objectivity. O., according to Hegel, includes reconciliation with oneself and recognition of oneself in otherness. Each separate individual, rising from his natural essence into the sphere of the spirit, finds in language, customs, social order of his people the given substance which he wishes to master. The essence of O. is not alienation as such, but a return to oneself, the premise of which, however, is alienation. At the same time, O. should be understood not only as the result of the ascent of the spirit into the realm of the universal, but at the same time as the element in which an educated person resides. But O. should lead, as Hegel believes, to the complete mastery of substance, to separation from all objective entities, which is achievable only in absolute philosophical knowledge. In this way, Hegel really eludes historical essence O., because it is not so much the last phase of development, but the basis for harmonious movement in the future. The relationship of O. and common sense is presented by A. Bergson. According to Bergson, the absolute is comprehensible only through intuitive experience, and not through rational constructions abstracted from life. Only ordinary consciousness is able to comprehend the essence of phenomena, providing direct penetration into the "principle of life." Common sense is an obligatory accessory, the basis of everyday consciousness. It acts as a social feeling that allows us to imagine the consequences of our actions, even more likely to anticipate them, to be able to choose the essential. "Common sense is the very attention paid to life." But if common sense is the basis and essence of the spirit, then perhaps it is innate and independent of education? “It seems that this would be so if everything were alive in the soul and in society, if we were not doomed to carry a dead weight of vices and prejudices with us.” Ideas obscure life itself from us and force us to think not about things, but about words. And it is precisely in the classical that O. Bergson finds a force capable of "breaking the ice of words and revealing a free flow of thought under it." The classical teaches not to be deceived by words, relieves automatism and frees ideas from the yoke of verbal forms. It calls for "abandoning symbols and learning to see." In the modern era, Foucault believes, truth is no longer able to serve as the salvation of the subject, as it was in ancient times. Knowledge is accumulated in an objective social process. The subject affects the truth, but the truth no longer affects the subject. The connection between access to truth and the demand for the transformation of man and his being himself was finally broken, and truth became an autonomous development of knowledge. "Postmodernity", according to J. Baudrillard, is losing the two-century domination of the social. The Enlightenment, which gave rise to O.'s discourse, was based on the principle of rational communication. At its core was the imperative of moralizing the message: to better inform in order to socialize better and to create more and more consciousness. But the current era is characterized by a drop in the demand for consciousness, and therefore there is nothing to socialize. In place of the "society" come the "masses", absorbing information without even digesting it. At the same time, the death of the subject as a carrier of cognition takes place. body activity. The reason for this process was the spread of new means mass communication. Does the totality of awareness deprive? ability to distinguish truth from fiction, and reality from simulation. Similarities, images are ahead of reality as simulacra in such a way that reality turns out to be only a simulation of simulacra. At the same time, the content of the message loses its significance, which leads to the atrophy of consciousness. S. A. Azarenko

Learning (in pedagogy) - purposeful pedagogical process organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering ZUN (knowledge, skills, abilities), developing creative abilities and moral ethical views. Training - View learning activities, in which the quantity and quality of the elements of knowledge and skills of the student are brought to the proper level (average, reference, possible), which is the goal of learning.

The basis for the organization of training is a student's product produced in the teaching (and in the training) link, which lacks the necessary quality and quantity of the content presented in the training material. If there is no such student product, then it is impossible to organize learning activities.

The learning activity is considered completed, and its goal is achieved, if the quantity and quality of the educational material in the student's re-manufactured product correspond to the learning goal or constitute the proper level (average, reference, possible) presented in the learning goal.

Self-training (English self-instruction) is an activity directed by an individual to gain knowledge and (or) experience independently.

The quality of the knowledge gained during self-study directly depends on the quality and quantity of the necessary available material, as well as on the desire (motivation) of the individual to receive them. When teaching, a purposeful process is carried out, the interaction of the student and the teacher to form knowledge, skills, and abilities, usually according to a specific program, which sets out the order of study and the amount of material being studied. The knowledge gained in the process of self-study is remembered more strongly, but gaps are possible in them, due to the fact that during self-study the order and volume of the studied material is often determined by the self-study. Self-training (English self-instruction) is an activity directed by an individual to gain knowledge and (or) experience independently.

Types of training

1. According to the generality of the content of education mastered by students

frontal learning. With the frontal organization of learning, all students move along curriculum simultaneously: from topic to topic, from class to class (from course to course). Frontal training can be organized in different ways.

In the classroom there can be an absolute common front - all students do the same thing in a given period of time, in the same way and by the same means. The forms of learning organization used linearly replace each other, for example, a question is explained to the whole team, then the students perform tasks in pairs, after which each does the same thing individually.

There are frontal lessons with a more complex structure of the forms of organization of learning used, when at the same time in the lesson there is a variety of forms of organization of learning or types of work used, for example, a teacher works with some of the students, part of the class acts in pairs, and the rest - individually. But at the same time everyone learns general theme(question).

non-frontal learning. Students implement different goals, study different fragments of the course, using different methods and means, spending different time for mastering each fragment of the course; there are rare cases of the simultaneous start and end of the execution of any work.

Aggregate educational content, which is being studied in the team at a given time (someone studies some fragments of the course, and someone else) is called the scale of the absence of a common front. The scale of the absence of a front can be different: the volume of a section, a year, the entire course, etc. The larger the scale of the absence of a common front, the more the organization of training is non-frontal in nature.

2. According to the form of event situations of interaction

individually-mediated form of education. It corresponds to mediated communication ( individual work student with educational material, through which he is in a situation of communication with another person);

paired form of organization of training. It corresponds to the interaction in a separate pair (its results are not used in other pairs, that is, the participants in the lesson do not represent a group);

group form of organization of training. It corresponds to communication in a group, when each speaker sends a message to everyone at the same time;

collective form of organization of training. It corresponds to interaction in a group, when communication takes place in pairs of shift composition.

3. According to the peculiarities of training sessions

Individual training sessions. There is no common front, the teacher works with each student in turn, all the others act individually. This is individual training.

Group training sessions (group training). All students do the same thing in a given period of time, in the same way and by the same means. For all students, the same educational route for mastering the curriculum is provided. The relationship "teaching - group" dominates. This is group training.

Collective training sessions. There is no common front. Students master the general content of the course along different educational routes, the mastered content and didactic positions are redistributed among the participants (trained, teaching, checked, checking, organizer, etc.). Temporary educational cooperations are being created at the intersections of educational routes. These are non-permanent groups or separate pairs to perform a specific educational task. As a rule, several cooperatives operate simultaneously, differing in basic forms, topics, methods of work, and the number of students. This is collective learning.

4. By way of explanation

Socratic dialogue (Socratic conversation). The teacher, dividing the thought into small links and submitting each in the form of a benevolent question, each of which is followed by a short, simple, predictable and, as a rule, affirmative answer, brings the student (acting as an interlocutor) to a more complete vision of the subject of discussion and conclusions which were initially not obvious to the interlocutor. The interlocutor comes to the truth himself (albeit with the help of a teacher).

dogmatic teaching. Aimed at ensuring listening and rote learning.

Explanatory-illustrative training.

Independent acquisition of knowledge under the guidance of a teacher-consultant.

Define the concept of principles of teaching fine arts. List the basic principles of learning

Reveal the essence of the principles: activity and consciousness of learning, visualization of learning, consistency and consistency of learning, strength and cyclicity of learning, accessibility of learning, scientific nature of learning, connection between theory and practice. Give an example of the operation of the principle of systematicity and consistency within the framework of a special course drawing.

· Principle translated from lat. Means the basis, the beginning - These are the most important requirements that apply to the implementation of educational and educational work. Principles are not determined arbitrarily, but are developed on the basis of laws established in science.

Basic principles of training: scientific, learning should be characterized problematic, visual, active and conscious training, accessibility of training, consistency and consistency of training, strength and cyclicity of training, connection between theory and practice

· Teaching must be scientific . Deep scientific evidence of the studied theoretical ideas and provisions and their convincing argumentation with factual material; observance of the principle of historicism in the presentation of the studied material, showing the development and assertion of the truth; using the latest ideas scientific achievements in learning.

Learning should be challenging .The teacher should not miss the opportunity and need to create problem situations in the classroom, raise questions, put forward cognitive tasks in order to encourage students to actively think about their solution.

Visibility of learning . Visualization is for students a source and means of direct knowledge of the world around them. Knowledge will be the stronger and more complete, the more senses it is perceived. The visibility of learning is based on the characteristics of children's thinking, which develops from the concrete to the abstract. Visualization increases interest in learning and makes it easier.

Activity and consciousness of students in the learning process . Excitement in students of the need to acquire knowledge; the use of various methods of enhancing their cognitive activity (raising questions, encouraging them to formulate conclusions based on the analysis of factual material); expanding independent work, conducting observations, encouraging creativity, ingenuity.

Availability of training . This follows from taking into account age and individual features students. The nature of the content of the studied material should not exceed the mental capabilities of students in its comprehension and assimilation.

Systemacity and sequence of training . Constantly establish a connection between new material and previously studied material (with this, the presentation of each new topic should begin). Accustom students to systematic homework, regularly check and evaluate the knowledge, skills, abilities of students. Timely detect shortcomings in the educational work and knowledge of students, provide them with the necessary assistance.

Durability of learning and its cyclicity. The strength of learning is achieved only if students in the press of mastering knowledge complete a full cycle of educational and cognitive actions. Primary perception and comprehension of the studied material, its subsequent deeper comprehension, its assimilation (memorization), the application of acquired knowledge in practice in order to develop skills and abilities, repetition, systematization.

The unity of teaching, developing and educational functions of educational work . Learning objective: student mastery of the system scientific knowledge, skills, skills (training), development of mental and creative abilities, memory (developing), the formation of a scientific worldview and moral and aesthetic culture (educational).

· The operation of the principle of systematicity and consistency within the framework of the special course drawing.

For example, starting new topic“Drawing a simple still life from household items”, it is necessary to repeat the previously covered material: compositional placement of objects on a format, a perspective image of ovals and a cube, drawing objects with a complex geometric shape. Assuming the topic is 6 hours long
(for 2 hours a day), then after each lesson it is necessary to give homework to consolidate the skills. For example, after the lesson "Linear-constructive construction of a still life" - d / z: perform a linear-constructive drawing of household items. After the lesson “Cheer and shade solution of a still life” - d / z: make sketches of household items with the transfer of light and shadow. During the lesson, it is necessary to detect errors in the performance of the task in a timely manner so that the student corrects them in time. For example, errors in the construction of objects. At the end of each session, a review of the work should be done. View work at the end of classes on the topic.

Define the concepts: methods of teaching fine arts, means of teaching fine arts. List verbal, visual, practical methods used in the art classes. Expand the concept of exercise, list the types of exercises in fine arts. Design a composition exercise.

· Teaching method- these are ordered ways of interconnected activities of the teacher and students aimed at achieving the goal of education. Method in a general sense - a way to achieve the goal. In the ISO methodology, the variety of methods can be divided into two categories: specific methods (the method of copying samples, the method of drawing from life, the geometrical and natural methods, the author's methods of artists) and general didactic methods.

Means of education- a set of material objects and objects of spiritual culture, intended for the organization and implementation of ped. process. Funds are divided into: visual(volumetric, printed), technical(visual, audio, audiovisual)

Verbal methods used in the art classes: story, explanation, conversation, briefing.

Visual methods: illustrative - visual, method of pedagogical drawing, demonstrative method.

Practical: method of drawing from nature, methods of working with art materials and tools, a method of working with didactic material (working according to an algorithm, according to a model), a method of practical independent work,

· The exercise - repeated performance of an action in order to assimilate it.

An exercise can act as one of the types of short-term tasks with a clearly limited didactic task or be included in the structure of tasks and be one of the stages of their implementation. Exercise is a type of short-term tasks. Every exercise is a challenge.

Classification of exercises:

- Depending on the degree of independence of students in their implementation:

1. independent,

2. performed according to instructions,

3. performed by students following the teacher (visual dictation).

- Depending on the form of cooperation in the lesson:

1. frontal

2. group

3. individual

- By the nature of the performance:

1. oral

2. written

3. practical

- Depending on the psychological orientation:

1. Touch (perception of form, tonal local, spatial, light relations, the nature of the surface, etc.)

2. motor (practical visual activity, development of skills and abilities)

3.analytical or logical(aimed at the development of psychological mechanisms thinking)

Composition exercise "Symmetry"

Type of exercise : sensory, written

Lead time : 3-5 min.

Description of the exercise: the exercise is aimed at consolidating knowledge on the topic - symmetrical compositional balance

Given: Illustration depicting various kinds symmetrical and asymmetrical stylized plants

A task : Look at the illustration, choose symmetrical images. Fill in the table "Types of symmetry"

Define the concept of a method according to N.N. Rostovtsev. List the methods of a specific group related to visual activity. Explain the essence of the method of copying samples, the method of drawing from nature and the geometric method. Design an example of applying two different methods to the study of the same topic.

· N.N. Rostovtsev writes: Under the method, we mean the way the teacher and students work, with the help of which the assimilation of educational material is achieved and academic performance is increased. Teaching techniques are separate moments from which methods are added.

Specific group methods: the method of copying samples, the method of drawing from life, the geometrical and natural methods, the author's methods of artists

· Sample Copy Method: the essence of the method lies in teaching novice artists to reproduce their "samples", schemes, works of art.

Method of drawing from life: the essence of the method lies in teaching beginner artists in the process of depicting the real world, studying it.

Hemetral and natural method: the essence of the method lies in drawing by cells, based on the image of elementary geometric bodies and shapes that underlie the design of objects, based on the plasticity of the outlines of the shape of real objects.

Separate tricks, which are the basis of these methods: the development of the eye, the development of visual memory, color perception, spatial thinking, the development of abilities, imagination, fantasy.

Topic: "Drawing a still life from household items"

Purpose: the formation of the ability to construct a linear constructive construction of household items, the development of the perception of form, the education of an active attitude to work

Task: to perform a linear-constructive drawing of a still life, revealing the features of the shape of each object, with a simple pencil.

Methods Used : method of drawing from life and geometrical method.

Expand the concepts of visual aids, list the types of visual aids according to N.P. Nikanorova. Expand the concept of "natural fund" and list the requirements for this learning tool. List the visual aids that you would use in the drawing lesson, topic: "Drawing a plaster rosette."

· Visual aids- a special group of teaching aids, due to the visual nature of the art, it is widely used in it.

Visual aids are divided into: 1 . Volumetric(models, collections, casts, etc.);

2.printed(pictures, posters, tables, portraits, etc.); 3 . projection material(movies, videos, slides, etc.)

Modern visual aids are considered to be: multimedia encyclopedias with learning functions, interactive tutorials, electronic textbooks.

Benefits in kind are classified according to N.P. Nikanorova for art lessons: on natural and visual.

Fine – include various types of originals and reproductions of works of art (copies, reproductions, photographs),

natural - artificial objects (stuffed birds, animals, dummies, insect preparations, herbariums)

· natural fund- these natural visual aids include real objects and models:

Household items (dishes, toys, handicrafts, tools, furniture, etc.)
Draperies and other textiles
Stuffed birds and animals, dummies, herbariums.
Models that reproduce the appearance of the head and figure of a person, their parts; models of architectural details, sculptural works, objects, geometric bodies.

Requirements for natural fund: - compliance with the curriculum of the course, for example, jugs of the fund of household items should not only be diverse in shape, but also of different sizes and colors in order to solve various didactic tasks. - providing a learning system from simple to complex, for example, simple geometric bodies and bodies of complex geometric shapes; casts of a human face and plaster heads. - participation in the formation of an aesthetic taste for the surrounding reality and, for example, draperies and other objects should be beautiful in color, texture, clean, unwrinkled. - the presence of clear in color, shape, design of objects.

· topic: "Drawing a plaster rosette."

Visual aids: gypsum rosette, table “Stages of drawing a gypsum rosette”, drawing tutorial describing the stages of building a gypsum rosette, samples of work.

22. Expand the concept of children's drawing from the point of view of the methodology of teaching special disciplines. List two main characteristics of a child's drawing. Expand the concept of visual literacy of children's drawing. Analyze the children's drawing, through the characteristics of expressiveness.

Child's drawing like a product of fine arts activity and whether a creative nature has a number of characteristics. These features of children's drawings are studied by specialists in the field of psychology, sociology, ethnography, and art history. Exhibitions and competitions of children's drawings are widely popular in the pedagogical environment as a form of presentation of the results of teaching fine arts. Acting as a product (one of the embodied results) of activity, children's drawing is the object of pedagogical diagnostics and research.

Artist-teachers study the didactic aspects of children's drawing, highlighting visual literacy and expressiveness.

· Visual literacy- the quality of children's drawing, which reflects the degree of learning of the child. In this sense, a child's drawing can serve as a means of diagnosing the process of teaching fine arts.

There are different aspects of visual literacy:

- compositional- competent filling of the sheet plane, the use of compositional means of expression;

- color- possession of a color palette, expressive possibilities colors;

- form transfer literacy- constructive, proportional, plastic and expressive aspect of the form;

- space- conditional, decorative, transfer of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional plane.

- technical- possession of art materials, tools, techniques, methods of creating an image.

A certain degree of visual literacy is always characteristic of children's drawing. Already in preschool education, children are taught to choose the size of the image, they master the usual visual schemes for this age: the image of a tree, a flower, a person, a house, transport, etc. These skills are basic for the development of visual skills at school age. If in the drawings of children school age If these schemes consistently prevail, then they usually speak of a low level of learning and characterize the organization of learning in art in a certain way.

· Expressiveness of children's drawing- the quality of a child's drawing, which determines its aesthetic value. Defined in aesthetic categories. Children indicate the presence of this quality in a drawing is always unmistakable, defining it with the word “beautiful”, and teachers call such drawings expressive.

There are two aspects Expressiveness: technical and figurative.

technical expressiveness children's drawing is easy to design, but requires some material support. So, sometimes children say “beautiful”, seeing that beautiful paint streaks successfully convey the humidity of the air environment of the landscape after rain. Professional artists are reasonably demanding in terms of technical expressiveness to your works. Everything matters here: the quality of paper, paint, brushes, techniques and methods of creating an image. When designing tasks, teachers also carefully select tools, materials, technique, seeing in them a means of creating an expressive picture.

figurative expressiveness more difficult to design. It has to do with decision: colors, shapes, spaces. Let's compare two images: a dejected horse and a proud horse. They differ from each other and from the average from the scheme not so much by the difference in design, proportions, color, but by what is usually called the Expressiveness of the details of the image.

What is education? You can try to give a definition (your own or borrowed). Or maybe a short description.

In her monograph "Psychology of Intelligence", Marina Kholodnaya set a goal to give a definition of intelligence. And she had to repeat after Spearman: "The concept of intelligence has so many meanings that, in the end, it has none." Probably the same can be said about the concept of "education".
It is no coincidence that I started talking about intelligence, although the question is about education. I just think that education is the process of creating intelligence. By the man himself, of course. And I absolutely agree with vladimir dubasov, who in his definition speaks of the use in this process of both other people's and his own ideas.
Education is the process of accumulating mental experience, which is the basis of intellectual maturity.
Traditional theories of intelligence have not covered three specific areas of the phenomenology of intelligence. These are the features of the structure and functioning of the intellect, firstly, in the conditions of a person’s real professional activity (the “competence” phenomenon), secondly, in cases of real extraordinary intellectual achievements (the “talent” phenomenon), and thirdly, in old age ( the phenomenon of "wisdom").
Marina Kholodnaya approaches intelligence from the standpoint of mental experience, and her approach takes into account all three of these phenomena, as well as continuous interaction with the world.

Cold, by the way (Khishtaki's answer), considers the relationship between intelligence and adaptability. According to her, the behavior of the smart is maladaptive, and the behavior of the stupid is maladaptive))

Mental experience is a complex psychological formation. The three main forms of organization of experience - mental structures, mental space and mental representations - act as a hierarchy of psychic vehicles.

Intelligence is special shape organization of individual mental experience in the form of available mental structures, the mental space of reflection generated by them, and the mental representations of what is happening being built within this space.

Mental structures are a system of mental formations that, in conditions of cognitive contact with reality, provide the possibility of receiving information about ongoing events and its transformation, as well as managing information processing processes and selectivity of intellectual reflection. These are peculiar mental mechanisms in which cash is presented in a “folded” form. intellectual resources subject and which, when confronted with any external influence, can “deploy” a specially organized mental space.
Mental space is a dynamic form of mental experience, which is actualized in the conditions of cognitive interaction of the subject with the world.
Real space representation units can be immediately deployed into a full-fledged mental spatial context, depending on the task. For example, from the image of a house, a person can easily mentally move to the image of the street on which this house is located, to the image of a quarter, etc.
Mental representation is an actual mental image of a particular event (that is, a subjective form of "seeing" what is happening).

It is the processes in the sphere of individual mental (mental) experience that predetermine individual intellectual capabilities.
Now in the country there is a shift in the normal distribution of intellectual abilities under the influence of a number of factors: genetic and biological; socio-economic, psychological.
Among the socio-economic ones are the decline in the quality of education, the destruction of science as a social institution, etc.

Svetlana krymskaia

Education is a bundle of various keys necessary for life, self-education, self-development and constant self-education. This can only happen in one case, if a person meets unique TEACHERs, or even ONE real teacher, or very loving, intelligent and talented parents. It is IMPOSSIBLE to measure this with diplomas, there are NO systems in our country.

Solnyshkova_ya.

Education is a process of self-discovery of a person throughout his life - as a result, a complete IMAGE of this particular person is obtained - this is what the ancient Greeks knew.
As for the system we call education, it does not so much educate as it standardizes - it's incomprehensible to the mind - we are talking about the uniqueness of everyone and we are directing all our efforts to dissolve this uniqueness in a standard form! !
Today, when by the beginning of schooling all children are usually elementary literate, I often own a computer, read, write .... a system of competent education is needed, this is when, in fact, competent mentoring is carried out .... problems are raised, various ways to resolve them, not for the sake of the result, for the sake of the process, gaining skills ...
In fact, what is happening now at school should perhaps begin only at a university, when a person who has chosen a certain specialization will be educated as a specialist, but at a university there should be subjects that expand consciousness, and not just narrowly specialized ones. But only here we can already talk about competence - now, almost in elementary school, they are supposedly trying to form it ... on the fragments and bits of knowledge FROM the sciences, not scientific ones ....
Sorry, maybe this is not about that, but .... sorry for people, averaged to the simplest ....

Imago

Do you want the essence? .
EDUCATION is a reduction to an image. The question is to what... or rather, to whose image?
Each act (and in Orthodoxy even thoughts and desires are considered acts) of a person likens him either to God or to His opponent - the devil. In other words, a person, leading this or that way of life, either adores or ravages ...
God created man so that the best of the best would take the place of those angels in heaven who, together with Satan, were cast down to earth and are now called demons.
Therefore, human life, despite its temporality, has endless consequences. Conscious of this truth or not, but each of us determines his future destiny, shaping himself with this or that bias. And the earlier the choice is made, the better; the further you can move on the chosen path ...
Having received a single life, a person bears absolute responsibility for its quality! ..

Helena *

Every year in Stavropol Territory Pedagogical festivals are held on the basis of the Nevinommysskaya gymnasium No. 10, where, of course, the director of the gymnasium lights up, this festival has long become a regional one and even more.

But lately, some stagnation has begun to appear in it, as if it is losing its strength and relevance.

And very sorry. Last year I did not get to it, but I was at the festival in the village. Irgakly of the Stepnovsky district, they have also been holding similar festivals for several years, although they only copy the Nevinnomys one.

But I met Kalkaev at the festival, I met, this is loudly said, because I just saw him again at a performance.

You can call it that, he presented his "Passion for a Teacher", where he argued about what education is, who a teacher is and what he should be.

I quote from his speech:
HOW A TEACHER TO FULFILL HIS MISSION AND LIVE A FULL-BLOODED LIFE UNDER THE CONDITIONS IN WHICH HE IS SET TODAY.
Challenges to the teacher:
Computerization of modern life.
Fast changing information.
The dominance of material values over spiritual ones.
Residual principle of financing education.
The image of a teacher as a person and a professional is undermined by the media.
Retraining teachers to maintain their competitiveness in the labor market.
Demand for a creative self-developing personality by society.

The mission of the teacher and educator is to stimulate the individual to creative knowledge and transformation of both himself and the surrounding reality.

RISKS IN EDUCATION:
1. Weakening of the country's gene pool.
2. Commercialization of education.
3. Reducing funding for education.
4. The absence of state levers of influence on the family, in matters of education and upbringing of children.
5. Incompetence of the teacher and teacher.
6. The USE in its present form generates a contradiction that does not allow the development of a creative personality.

Tips for teachers:
1. Don't be afraid of modern challenges.
2. Don't be afraid of people with interesting ideas and new people themselves.
3. Don't be afraid to be the best, stick out.
4. Do not be afraid of misunderstanding.
5. Don't be afraid to try. Only those who do nothing do not make mistakes.
6. Don't be afraid of disappointment. There are no defeats, there is feedback that we did something wrong.
7. Don't be afraid to go slow.
8. Don't be afraid to experiment.

As long as there are teachers who you can look up to, who do not work for a salary, then it is possible that there will be wonderful students who know much more than the school curriculum.

As my husband says: a teacher is not a profession, it is a way of life (or maybe a disease)

So let's be sick of our education)))
and it's time to throw out all the textbooks for a long time (((
By the way, the Erdnievs have very wonderful textbooks - "Mathematics", but now you can’t even find them in any library (((

http://www.lik10.ru/conception/mission.html

Define the terms:

1) credit issue
2) urgency, payment, repayment
3) real interest rate
4) solvency
5) partial reserves
6) discounting
7) nominal interest rate
8) emission
9) deposits
10)reserve requirements
11) creditworthiness
12) bill
13) credit
14) liquidity

Marina Khamukova

1 Credit issue - an increase by a bank of the country's money supply by creating new deposits for those customers who
2 Term lending is a natural form of securing the repayment of a loan. It means that the loan must not only be repaid, but repaid within the period strictly specified in the loan agreement. To do this, the loan agreement elaborates a schedule for repayment of the loan and payment of interest.
The principle of payment for a loan means that the borrower of money must pay a certain lump-sum fee for using the loan or pay within a specified period.
loan repayment - an expression of the need for a timely return of the equivalent by the borrower. Repayment is inherent in all forms of credit. Repayment means the fulfillment of the arisen loan obligation;
3 The real interest rate is the real income from a loan, i.e. money income adjusted for inflation.
4 Solvency - the ability of an economic entity to timely fulfill monetary obligations stipulated by law or an agreement, at the expense of the monetary resources at its disposal.
5 PARTIAL RESERVE - the rate of cash reserves of a commercial bank, constituting only a part of its deposit obligations.
6 Discounting is value determination cash flow, by bringing the cost of all payments to a certain point in time. Discounting is the basis for calculating the value of money, taking into account the time factor.
7 Nominal interest rate - the interest rate set without taking into account the depreciation of money due to inflation.
8 EMISSION 1. adjective 1) see emission associated with it. 2) Inherent to the emission, characteristic of it. 2. adjective 1) see the emission associated with it. 2) Arising, acting as a result of emission.
9 (Deposit) Bank deposit - the amount of money transferred by a person to a credit institution in order to receive income in the form of interest generated in the course of financial transactions with the deposit.
10 RESERVE REQUIREMENTS - part of the deposits that banks must keep in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation to ensure their financial stability. However, the amount of reserve requirements may be changed by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation in connection with the implementation of monetary policy.
11 Creditworthiness is a comprehensive legal and financial characteristic of a borrower, represented by financial and non-financial indicators, which makes it possible to assess its ability in the future to fully and within the time period specified in the loan agreement to pay off its debt obligations to the creditor, as well as determining the degree of risk of the bank when lending to a specific borrower
12 Promissory note - a type of security, a written promissory note of the form established by law. It is issued by the borrower (drawer) to the creditor (bill holder), who has the right to require the borrower to pay the amount of money within the specified period. It is a universal payment, settlement and credit means: 1) form of payment obligations in trade, including international ones; 2) means of a short-term commercial loan, usually up to 6 months; 3) commercial bills at the disposal of the bank serve as the basis for issuing a bank bill; 4) a means of registration of debt relations between banks; 5) the form of collateral for obtaining a bank loan; 6) the form of collateral under which a commercial bank can obtain a loan from the central bank. A bill of exchange is a convenient means of payment in the sense that the holder of a bill can cover his monetary obligations with it, transferring it to his creditors with the help of an endorsement. There are two types of bills: simple and transferable. A simple one involves the fulfillment of an obligation by the drawer himself, and a transferable one - by the payer indicated on the bill with the help of a transfer signature (endorsement).

EDUCATION IS FORMING OUR FUTURE in every sense. Describing the role of education in the development of states, the famous politician, founder of the German Empire, Otto von Bismarck, said: "The Battle of Sadovaya was won by the Prussian teacher." Absolutely the same can be said about the role of the Russian teacher: it is education that lays the foundations for future great achievements and victories. The future of our country depends on what the next generation will become. Putin's plan gives Special attention development of education as the foundation of Russian culture and unique Russian civilization.

The world is now experiencing a new scientific and technological revolution, the rapid development of information technology. Absolutely all areas of activity - and industrial production, both management and business, not to mention science, require qualified specialists. Without them it is impossible to talk about any development. But most important function education - the formation of a person as an independently thinking and capable of self-development personality, not afraid to make decisions and be responsible for himself, his family and his actions. It is such a person, protected from unscrupulous manipulations of a political and economic nature, that constitutes the unit of civil society. Only such a person can take responsibility for the future of the country and people.

Putin's plan provides for a breakthrough policy in the field of education, initiates a wide variety of measures to support it. As part of national project"Education" has already carried out a large-scale Internetization of schools, providing schools with new educational equipment, supporting class teachers, supplying new buses to rural schools, financial incentives for the country's best universities that introduce innovative educational programs and conduct Scientific research established new training centers in military units allowing military personnel not to interrupt their education in connection with the performance of their duties. However, this is only the beginning of a long journey towards becoming a responsible modern requirements education systems.

The most important priority of the Putin Plan is to maintain the availability of education for all segments of the population. Everyone who wants to receive a quality education, including higher education, should and will receive it. Differences in family income should by no means lead to differences in educational attainment.

Will the introduction of a two-tier system of higher education (bachelor's and master's) lead to the actual introduction of universal paid higher education?

NO, WILL NOT. Both bachelor's and master's programs will certainly retain state-funded places. But for each student, the possibilities for choice will expand significantly. future profession, and a diploma of higher education will be officially recognized at the international level.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

EDUCATION

the process and result of a person's assimilation of general and specialized social experience, systematized knowledge, skills, as well as social norms and values; one of the most important means of social regulation, consolidation and reproduction of society and increasing the level of its adaptive capabilities in constantly changing historical conditions.

In the process of education, the inculturation and socialization of the individual takes place, the development of a certain functional role by a person in the social division of labor. The main way of obtaining education is studying in various educational institutions.

Distinguish between general and special education.

General education is aimed primarily at the inculturation of the individual, it forms the spiritual image of a person, lays in his consciousness behavioral stereotypes and cultural patterns, gives the knowledge necessary for everyone, regardless of the chosen profession.

Special education introduces a person into the existing system of division of labor, gives knowledge and skills of productive activity (including creative innovative) in a highly specialized field.

The concept of education appears at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. Unlike the educational models of upbringing inspired by the works of J. Locke, the idea of education is not limited to giving a person a certain amount of information, changing his mind and removing (education) from some preliminary, uncultured state. Goethe, Pestalozzi and neo-humanists considered education as a general spiritual process of human formation, as opposed to educational technology enlighteners.

Education is no longer something external to a person, something that should be mastered and placed at his service. A person from the very birth is on the path of education, because education becomes his being.

The crystallization of the concept of education took place in the depths of German thought. Already in Herder this word signified "growth towards humanity". I. Kant understood education as a kind of specifically human way of transforming natural inclinations. It is necessary to develop one's abilities in order to become a useful link in the world - this is the duty of a person to himself and to all mankind.

Education, according to W. von Humboldt, acts as a meaning human history. In the process of education that has been going on since the beginning of the existence of mankind, the self of man, his humanity, i.e. "humanity" is realized.

The goal of education is a holistic person who has realized the entire sum of human potentials, who has become the master of his own destiny. An educated person is a person who has grown up to his era, integrating all the achievements of the past. Education, therefore, does not follow external principles of perfection, but originates "in the experience and feeling of a collectively spiritual and sensual striving" and therefore is constantly in a state of continuation and development.

Education, according to Hegel, is the exit of individuality beyond the immediate given, the smoothing of its features and the raising of individuality to the level of universality, so that it can perceive natural things in their freedom and essentiality without subjective interest and henceforth be able to conform to them in their actions.

Education, according to Hegel, is not only the formation of oneself, but also the formation of reality. Education translates mental universality into reality, with its help individuality renounces its selfhood and conforms to the developing substance of the world spirit, translating it into reality.

The discussion about what kind of education is more useful for society: general, which provides the maximum assimilation of cultural and spiritual experience, or highly specialized, which implies high competence in a particular industry, perhaps to the detriment of a broad intellectual and cultural outlook, has been going on for more than one century.

It is obvious, however, that both the spiritual and material content of education depends on the most urgent needs of society at one time or another. In the 1930s, in the context of the unfolding modernization Soviet society as never needed a large number of technically literate staff. Then, in addition to training specialists in universities and secondary specialized educational institutions, compulsory technical training was introduced at plants and factories on the job. They were led by experienced engineers, often ordered from abroad. During the era of the first five-year plans, 80 million illiterate peasants were taught to read and write. Up to 15% of the budget was spent on education. As a result, a backward agricultural country in a short time turned into a powerful industrial power. In the 10 pre-war years, 9,000 factories were built in the country, industrial production grew at a pace that has not yet been surpassed by any country in the world.

Subsequently, American experts considered that one of the main reasons for the victory of the USSR in space was the general technical literacy of Russians, after which a similar Soviet training system began to be introduced in the United States.

In the context of globalization, when everyone competes with everyone in the single world labor market, education remains the most important factor in economic growth and successful competition for both individuals and companies and states. According to the director of the development department at Microsoft, N. Mihrworld, in a society where knowledge rules, the ratio of the best to the average is no longer 1 to 2, as it was before, but 1 to 100 or even 1 to 1000. And the head of the same company, B. Gates claims that if 20 key employees left Microsoft, the company would simply go bankrupt.

Large corporations do not spare money on education for their employees. Motorola has calculated that every dollar invested in education brings in $33 in return. This is understood by the leaders of many states. Back in 1993, in his first term, future US President Bill Clinton said, speaking to workers laid off after the factory closed: “No one, not me, not anyone else, is able to open this factory and return you to your jobs. In the modern world, capital flows to where the labor force is cheap. And it's not here. Therefore, we must develop other muscles that we have in our head. All of America should go back to school."

US spending on education is comparable to the entire state budget of Russia. At the same time, the US earns up to $12 billion a year from education. foreign students instilling American values in them. The USSR also taught foreign students, but today there are fewer and fewer of them.

Russian youth themselves leave to study abroad. Teachers and scientists are leaving universities (during the reforms, the brain drain amounted to more than 3 million people). In Russia, only 5% of the budget is now spent on education (277.94 billion rubles out of 5463.5 billion rubles that make up the expenditure side in the 2007 budget). In Japan, Singapore and South Korea - from 10% to 15%. In most European countries - from 6% to 12%.

For Russia, which is the coldest country in the world, a country with an expensive labor force, located far from the highways of the sea, the only chance for survival is innovation in the field of high technology which, in turn, are impossible without education.

Investing in education is investing in the future of the country. In the 1990s education has become an industry funded by residual principle. Unable to live on a salary of 5-10 dollars, school teachers and university professors went abroad en masse, went to small and medium-sized businesses and other industries. The foreign funds that flooded the country, including the notorious Soros Foundation, actually put both the Ministry of Education and individual institutions on the money “needle”. Educational programs written on Western grants for Russian schools and universities were tendentious, distorted real facts for propaganda purposes.

The deplorable state of affairs in the field of education could no longer be ignored by the authorities. Since the early 2000s urgent measures have been taken to improve the quality and accessibility of education. President V. Putin has repeatedly stated that in order to avoid the loss of its advantages by Russian education and to strengthen its innovativeness, it is necessary to increase and modernize the requirements for education. In 2005, this task was included in the program of priority national projects.

The national project "Education" provides for the creation of two new universities (Southern and Siberian Federal Universities; the state allocates 3 billion rubles each.

for each), two business schools (incl. high school management in St. Petersburg; 1.5 billion rubles each for each), allocation of grants, encouragement of the best teachers and university professors, as well as talented students, students and graduate students, measures to additional education military personnel, solving the problem with teaching aids, transport for rural schools.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓