Artificially created languages ​​of the world. Natural and artificial languages

Esperanto is the world's most widely spoken artificial language. Now, according to various sources, it is spoken by several hundred thousand to a million people. It was invented by the Czech ophthalmologist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887 and got its name from the author's pseudonym (Lazar signed in the textbook as Esperanto - "hoping").

Like other artificial languages ​​(more precisely, most of them), it has an easy-to-learn grammar. The alphabet has 28 letters (23 consonants, 5 vowels) and is based on Latin. Some enthusiasts have even nicknamed it "Latin of the new millennium".

Most of Esperanto words consist of Romance and Germanic roots: the roots are borrowed from French, English, German and Italian. There are also many international words in the language that are understandable without translation. 29 words are borrowed from Russian, among them the word "borscht".

Harry Harrison spoke Esperanto and actively promoted this language in his novels. Thus, in the cycle "The World of the Steel Rat", the inhabitants of the Galaxy speak mainly Esperanto. About 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, and four radio stations broadcast.

Interlingua (occidental)

Appeared in 1922 in Europe thanks to the linguist Edgar de Wahl. In many ways it is similar to Esperanto: it has a lot of borrowings from the Romano-Germanic languages ​​and the same language construction system as in them. The original name of the language - Occidental - became a hindrance to its spread after the Second World War. In the countries of the communist bloc, it was believed that after the pro-Western language, anti-revolutionary ideas would also creep in. Then Occidental became known as Interlingua.

Volapyuk

In 1879, God appeared to the author of the language, priest Johann Martin Schleyer, in a dream and ordered him to come up with and write down own language, which Schleyer immediately took up. All night he wrote down his grammar, word meanings, sentences, and then whole verses. Volapyuk became the basis German, Schleyer boldly deformed the words of English and French, reshaping them in a new way. In Volapuk, for some reason, he decided to abandon the sound [p]. More precisely, not even for some reason, but for a very specific one: it seemed to him that this sound would cause difficulties for the Chinese who decided to learn volapuk.

At first, the language became quite popular due to its simplicity. It published 25 magazines, wrote 316 textbooks in 25 languages, and operated 283 clubs. For one person, Volapuk even became their native language - this is the daughter of Professor Volapuk Henry Conn (unfortunately, nothing is known about her life).

Gradually, interest in the language began to decline, but in 1931 a group of Volapukists led by the scientist Ary de Jong reformed the language, and for some time its popularity increased again. But then the Nazis came to power and banned everything in Europe foreign languages. Today, there are only two or three dozen people in the world who speak Volapuk. However, Wikipedia has a section written in Volapük.

Loglan

Linguist John Cooke coined loglan (log ical lan guage) in 1955 as an alternative to conventional, "imperfect" languages. And suddenly a language that was created for the most part for scientific research found its fans. Still would! After all, it does not have such concepts as tense for verbs or number for nouns. It is assumed that this is already clear to the interlocutors from the context of the conversation. But there are a lot of interjections in the language, with the help of which it is supposed to express shades of emotions. There are about twenty of them, and they represent a spectrum of feelings from love to hate. And they sound like this: wow! (love), wow! (surprise), wow! (happiness), etc. And there are no commas or other punctuation marks. Miracle, not language!

Designed by Ohio priest Edward Foster. Immediately after its appearance, the language became very popular: in the first years, even two newspapers were published, manuals and dictionaries were published. Foster was successful in obtaining a grant from the International Auxiliary Language Association. The main feature of the ro language is that words were built according to a categorical scheme. For example, red is bofoc, yellow is bofof, orange is bofod. The disadvantage of such a system: it is almost impossible to distinguish words by ear. This is probably why the language did not arouse much interest among the public.

Solresol

Appeared in 1817. French creator Jean-Francois Sudre believed that everything in the world can be explained with the help of notes. Language, in fact, consists of them. It has a total of 2660 words: 7 one-syllable, 49 two-syllable, 336 three-syllable and 2268 four-syllable. To designate opposite concepts mirroring of the word is used: fall - good, lafa - bad.

Solresol had several scripts. It was possible to communicate on it by writing down the notes on the stave, the names of the notes, the first seven digits Arabic writing, the first letters of the Latin alphabet, special shorthand symbols and rainbow colors. Accordingly, it was possible to communicate in solresol not only by pronunciation of words, but also by playing musical instrument or singing, as well as in the language of the deaf and dumb.

The language found a lot of fans, including among famous people. Famous followers of Solresol were, for example, Victor Hugo, Alexander Humboldt, Lamartine.

Ithkuil

A specially designed language to communicate in philosophical themes(however, this can just as well be done in any other language, it will still be incomprehensible!). The creation of the language took its author John Quijada almost 30 years (from 1978 to 2004), and even then he believes that he has not yet finished with a vocabulary set. By the way, there are 81 cases in Ithkuil, and the meanings of words are transmitted using morphemes. Thus, a long thought can be conveyed very briefly. As if you wanted to archive the words.

tokipona

The simplest artificial language in the world was created in 2011 by Canadian linguist Sonia Helen Kisa (real name, however, Christopher Richard). There are only 118 words in the tokipon vocabulary (each of which has several meanings), and it is generally assumed that speakers will understand what is being said from the very context of the conversation. The creator of the tokipona believes that he has come close to understanding the language of the future, which Tyler Durden spoke about in Fight Club.

Klingon

Linguist Mark Okrand invented Klingon by order of Paramount Pictures, it was supposed to be spoken by aliens in the Star Trek movie. They actually talked. But besides them, numerous fans of the series have adopted the language, and currently there is the Klingon Language Institute in the USA, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics, there is Klingon-language rock music (for example, the Stokovor band performs its death metal songs exclusively in Klingon) , theatrical performances and even section search engine Google.

There are about 6,000 languages ​​in the world, of which 80 percent are endangered: one language dies every 15 days.

In a hundred years, between 500 and 3,000 languages ​​will remain on earth. UNESCO made such an alarming forecast. "97 percent of the world's population speaks 4 percent of the world's languages. This means that the linguistic heterogeneity of humanity is provided by a tiny minority of the world's population," the report says expert group UNESCO on Endangered Languages.

Experts cannot yet clearly explain what kind of danger is posed by such a rapid disappearance of languages. Many even see it natural process, which does not threaten humanity. However, the facts indicate that the threat still exists. First: the impoverishment of linguistic turns and the disappearance of cultures. After all, neither English nor French cannot boast of such capabilities as, for example, the Eskimo language, which has more than twenty words just to describe snow. And none of the modern giant languages ​​is able to take on all the world's variety of songs, poems and literature that exist among small disappearing peoples.

Second: with the disappearance of languages, a huge layer of exclusive knowledge about nature and environment. Just imagine that we owe the discovery of a drug against HIV type 1 to the Samoan language and its speakers who are familiar with medicinal properties Homalanthus Nutans plants.

Third: modern science about the environment is based on the experience of ancestors who speak rare languages. For example, the entire world homeopathy exists only thanks to the natural knowledge of small peoples and the knowledge of their languages.

Interestingly, along with the disappearance of rare languages, there is a process of creating new artificial languages. Their number has already exceeded a hundred, but none of them has been able to gain worldwide popularity and become the language of everyday communication between people. The correspondent of "RG", calculated that for 20 recent years 28 artificial languages ​​​​appeared, among them there is even the language "Slovenski", created for international communication Slavic peoples. However, oddly enough, he is not even known in the territory of these peoples.

A comment

Zinaida Strogalshchikova, expert at the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues:

None of the new artificial languages, unfortunately, could play the role for the development of culture and science, which is played by the disappearing and disappeared languages. Moreover, new languages ​​themselves are actually at risk, since without native speakers they cannot exist.

The worst thing is that the disappearance of languages ​​and the transition of representatives of small peoples to communication in a language foreign to them leads to the impoverishment of the creative potential of people. Psychologists have long noted that creative people, being in a foreign language environment, they cannot create: write books, compose music, draw pictures. To remedy this, a number of countries have adopted the methodology of the "language nest", invented by UNESCO. For example, in nordic countries parents send their children to kindergartens, where educators communicate only in the language of national minorities. This is how rare languages ​​are preserved. And one should not think that this is an artificial process, since it is natural and normal for a person to appreciate his culture, language and history.

Experts now note another interesting process - robbery natural knowledge disappearing peoples. This is when the so-called scientists do not spend their efforts on studying nature, do not conduct experiments and analyzes, but simply find little-known observations and knowledge of small peoples and pass them off as their own. This mainly happens in the field of medicine based on knowledge. healing properties herbs and their effects on different ethnic groups - after all, some plants have a therapeutic effect only on the population living in the same habitat as this herb.

It is dangerous to think that if the language is not needed by the majority, you can give up on it. After all, if you follow this logic, then one day those languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat are now not threatened by anything may be at risk. Think for yourself what you will lose if your native language.

To many, the very phrase “artificial language” may seem extremely strange. Why "artificial"? If there is "artificial language", then what is "natural language"? And finally, the most important thing: why create another new language when there are so many living, dying and ancient languages ​​in the world?

Artificial language, unlike natural language, is not a product of human communication resulting from complex cultural, social and historical processes, but created by man as a means of communication with new characteristics and capabilities. The question arises, is it not a mechanical product of the human mind, is it alive, does it have a soul? If we refer to languages ​​created for literary or cinematic works (for example, the language of the Quenya elves, invented by Professor J. Tolkien, or the language of the Klingon Empire from the Star Trek series), then in this case the reasons for their appearance are clear. The same applies to computer languages. However, most often people try to create artificial languages ​​as a means of communication between representatives of different nationalities, for political and cultural reasons.

For example, it is known that all modern Slavic languages related to each other, like all modern Slavic peoples. The idea of ​​their unification has been in the air since ancient times. The complex grammar of Old Church Slavonic could not have made it a language international communication Slavs, and it seemed almost impossible to opt for any particular Slavic language. Back in 1661 he was nominated Kryzhanich Pan-Slavic language project who laid the foundations of Pan-Slavism. It was followed by other ideas of a common language for the Slavs. And in the 19th century, the common Slavic language, created by the Croatian educator Koradzic, became widespread.

The projects of creating a universal language were occupied by the mathematician Rene Descartes, the enlightener Jan Amos Comenius, and the utopian Thomas More. They were all driven by the alluring idea of ​​breaking down the language barrier. However, most artificially created languages ​​have remained the hobby of a very narrow circle of enthusiasts.

The first language to achieve more or less noticeable success is considered to be Volapuk, invented by the German priest Schleir. It had a very simple phonetics and was built on the basis of the Latin alphabet. language had complex system verb formation and 4 cases. Despite this, he quickly gained popularity. In the 1880s, newspapers and magazines were even published on Volapuk, there were clubs of its lovers, and textbooks were published.

But soon the palm passed to another much easier language to learn - Esperanto. The Warsaw eye doctor Lazar (or, in the German manner, Ludwig) Zamenhof published his works for some time under the pseudonym "Doctor Esperanto" (hoping). The works were devoted just to the creation of a new language. He himself called his creation "internacia" (international). The language was so simple and logical that it immediately aroused the interest of the public: 16 uncomplicated grammar rules, no exceptions, words borrowed from Greek and Latin - all this made the language very convenient for learning. Esperanto remains the most popular artificial language to this day. It is interesting to note that in our time there are also speakers of Esperanto. One of them is George Soros, whose parents once met at an Esperanto congress. The famous financier is originally bilingual (his first native language is Hungarian) and a rare example of how an artificial language can become native.

In our time, there are a great many artificial languages: this and lolgan, designed specifically for linguistic research, and created by a Canadian philologist Toki Pona language, And edo(reformed Esperanto), and slovio(Pan-Slavic developed by Mark Gutsko in 2001). As a rule, all artificial languages ​​are very simple, which often evokes associations with Newspeak described by Orwell in the novel 1984, a language that was originally designed as political project. Therefore, the attitude towards them is often contradictory: why learn a language that is not written in great literature spoken by no one but a few amateurs? And, finally, why learn an artificial language when there are international natural languages ​​(English, French)?

Regardless of the reason for the creation of this or that artificial language, it is impossible for them to replace the natural language equally. It is deprived of a cultural and historical base, its phonetics will always be conditional (there are examples when Esperantists from different countries hardly understood each other due to the huge difference in the pronunciation of certain words), it does not have a sufficient number of speakers to be able to "plunge" into their environment. Artificial languages, as a rule, are taught by fans of certain works of art where these languages ​​are used, programmers, mathematicians, linguists, or simply interested people. It is possible to consider them as an instrument of interethnic communication, but only in a narrow circle of amateurs. Be that as it may, the idea of ​​creating a universal language is still alive and well.

Kurkina AnaTheodora

The legend of the Babylonian pandemonium haunts linguists - from time to time someone tries to come up with a universal language: concise, understandable and easy to learn. Also, artificial languages ​​are used in cinema and literature to make fictional worlds even more alive and realistic. "Theories and Practices" made a selection of the most interesting projects of this kind and found out how antonyms are formed in solresol, to what extent long words you can think of in Volapuk and how it sounds in Klingon famous quote from Hamlet.

Universalglot

Universalglot is the very first artificial language, systematized and developed in the likeness of Latin by the French linguist Jeanne Pirro in 1868. This a posteriori language (it is based on the vocabulary already existing languages) appeared 10 years earlier than Volapük and 20 years earlier than Esperanto. It was appreciated only by a small group of people and did not gain much popularity, although Pirro developed it in sufficient detail, inventing about 7000 basic words and many verbal morphemes that allow you to modify words.

Alphabet: consists of 26 letters of the Latin and German alphabets.

Pronunciation: Similar to English, but the vowels are pronounced in the Spanish or Italian manner.

Vocabulary: the most famous and easy to remember and pronounce words are selected from the Romance and Germanic languages. Most of the words are similar to French or German.

Grammar Features: nouns and adjectives are invariable parts of speech. All nouns female end with in. Verbs change in tenses and have passive forms.

Examples:

"In futur, I scriptrai evos semper in dit glot. I pregate evos responden ad me in dit self glot"“In the future, I will always write to you in this language. And I ask you to answer me on it.”

Habe or vin?- "Do they have wine?"

Volapyuk

Volapyuk was invented in Germany Catholic priest Johann Martin Schleyer in 1879. The creator of Volapyuk believed that this language was prompted to him by God, who descended to him during insomnia. The name came from English words world (vol in Volapük) and speak (pük), and the language itself was based on Latin. Unlike the universalglot that preceded it, volapyuk was popular for quite a long time: more than 25 journals were published on it and about 300 textbooks were written on its study. There is even Wikipedia on Volapuk. However, besides her, this language is practically not used by anyone in the 21st century, but the word “Volapyuk” itself has entered the lexicon of some European languages as a synonym for something meaningless and unnatural.

Alphabet: There are three alphabets in Volapük: the main one, close to Latin and consisting of 27 characters, the phonetic alphabet, consisting of 64 letters, and the extended Latin alphabet with additional letters (umlauts) included in it, which is used to convey proper names. Three alphabets, which were theoretically designed to help read and write, in fact only made it difficult to understand, since most words could be written in several ways (For example, "London" - London or).

Pronunciation: Volapuk phonetics is elementary: there are no complex combinations of vowels and the sound r, which makes pronunciation easier for children and people who do not use the sound r in speech. The stress always falls on the last syllable.

Vocabulary: Many word roots in Volapuk are borrowed from French and English, but the lexicon of the language is independent and devoid of close semantic connection with living languages. Volapuk words are often formed according to the principle of "stringing roots". For example, the word klonalitakip (chandelier) has three components: klon (crown), lit (light), and kip (keep). Making fun of the word-formation process in Volapük, people who knew the language deliberately composed long words, such as klonalitakipafablüdacifalöpasekretan (secretary of the chandelier factory directorate).

Grammar Features: Nouns can be declined in four cases. Verbs are formed by adding a pronoun to the root of the corresponding noun. For example, the pronoun ob (s) - "I (we)", when attached to the root löf ("love") forms the verb löfob ("love").

Example:

"Binos prinsip sagatik, kel sagon, das stud nemödik a del binos gudikum, ka stud mödik süpo"“It is wisely said that a little study every day is better than a lot of study in one day.”

Esperanto

The most popular of the artificial languages ​​was created in 1887 by the Warsaw linguist and ophthalmologist Lazar Markovich Zamenhof. The main points of the language have been collected in the Esperanto textbook Lingvo internacia. Antaŭparolo kaj plena lernolibro ("International language. Preface and complete textbook"). Zamenhof published a textbook under the pseudonym "Doctor Esperanto" (which in translation from the language he created means "Hoping"), which gave the name to the language.

idea to create international language came to Zamenhof due to the fact that in Bialystok - his hometown- people of different nationalities lived and they felt disunited, not having a common, understandable language for everyone. Esperanto was enthusiastically accepted by the public and actively developed for a long time: the Esperanto Academy appeared, and in 1905 the first World Congress dedicated to the new language took place. Esperanto has several "daughter" languages ​​such as Ido (translated from Esperanto as "descendant") and Novial.

Esperanto is still spoken by about 100,000 people all over the world. Several radio stations broadcast in this language (including Vatican Radio), some musical groups sing and films are made. There is also Google search in Esperanto.

Alphabet: was created on the basis of Latin and consists of 28 letters. There are letters with diacritics.

Pronunciation: The pronunciation of most sounds is easy without special training, some sounds are pronounced in Russian and Polish manners. The stress in all words falls on the penultimate syllable.

Vocabulary: The roots of words are mainly borrowed from Romance and Germanic languages ​​(French, German, English), sometimes there are Slavic borrowings.

Grammar Features: In the first textbook published by Zamenhof, all grammar rules Esperanto fit into 16 points. Each part of speech has its own ending: nouns end in o, adjectives end in a, verbs end in i, adverbs end in e. Verbs change by tense: each tense has its own ending (past is, present as, future os). Nouns change in only two cases - nominative and accusative, the remaining cases are expressed using prepositions. Plurals are shown with the ending j. There is no category of gender in Esperanto.

Example:

Ĉu vi estas libera ĉi-vespere?- Are you free tonight?

Lincos

Lincos is a "space language" created by Hans Freudenthal, professor of mathematics at the University of Utrecht, to interact with extraterrestrial civilizations. Linkos, unlike most artificial languages, is not a posteriori, but a priori (that is, it is based on no existing languages). Due to the fact that this language is intended for communication with alien intelligent beings, it is as simple and unambiguous as possible. It is based on the idea of ​​the universality of mathematics. Freudenthal has developed a series of lessons on linkos, which in the shortest possible time help to master the main categories of the language: numbers, the concepts of "greater than", "less than", "equal", "true", "false", etc.

Alphabet and pronunciation: There is no alphabet. Words do not need to be spoken. They are designed to be read-only or to be passed in the form of a code.

Vocabulary: Any word can be encoded if it can be mathematically explained. Since there are few such words, lincos mainly operates with categorical concepts.

Example:

Ha Inq Hb ?x 2x=5- Ha says Hb: what is x if 2x=5?

Loglan

Loglan is a logical language, a language developed by Dr. James Cook Brown as an experimental language to test the Sepphire-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity (language determines thinking and the way of knowing reality). The first book on its study, Loglan 1: A Logical Language, was published in 1975. The language is perfectly logical, easy to learn and devoid of the inaccuracies of natural languages. An observation was made of the first students of Loglan: linguists were trying to understand how language affects thinking. It was also planned to make Loglan a language for communicating with artificial intelligence. In 1987, the Loglan Institute split, and at the same time, the language also split: into Loglan and Lojban. Now there are only a few hundred people left in the world who can understand Loglan.

Alphabet: Latin alphabet unchanged with four diphthongs.

Pronunciation: Similar to Latin.

Vocabulary: all words are created specifically for this language. There are almost no borrowed roots. All uppercase consonants end in "ai" (Bai, Cai, Dai), lowercase consonants end in "ei" (bei, cei, dei), all uppercase vowels end in "-ma" (Ama, Ema, Ima), lowercase vowels end in "fi" (afi, efi, ifi)

Grammar Features: Loglan has only three parts of speech: names, words, and predicates. Names are written with capital letter and with a consonant at the end. Predicates act as almost all parts of speech, do not change and are built according to a certain scheme (they must have a specific number of vowels and consonants). Words help to create all connections between words (both grammatical, punctuation and semantic). So, most punctuation marks are not in Loglan: words are used instead - kie and kiu (instead of brackets), li and lu (instead of quotation marks). Words are also used for the emotional coloring of the text: they can express confidence, joy, aspiration, and so on.

Examples:

Ice mi tsodi lo puntu- I hate pain.

Le bukcu ga he treci?- Interesting book?

Bei mutce treci.- The book is very interesting

Solresol

Solresol is an artificial language invented by the Frenchman Jean François Sudre in 1817, based on the names of the seven notes of the diatonic scale. You don't need to be proficient in music to learn it. The language project was recognized by the Paris Academy of Sciences and received the approval of Victor Hugo, Alphonse Lamartine, Humboldt - however, interest in solresol was stormy, but short-lived. A separate plus of the language is that words and sentences in the Solresol language can be written both in letters (and vowels can be omitted for brevity) and musical notation, the first seven digits, the first seven letters of the alphabet, rainbow colors and shorthand signs.

Alphabet: Instead of an alphabet, Solresol uses the names of seven notes: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si.

Pronunciation: You can pronounce words by reading their names aloud or by singing the appropriate notes.

Vocabulary: All solresol words consist of note names. In total, the language has about 3,000 words (one-syllable, two-syllable, three-syllable and four-syllable). Words are grouped according to semantic categories: all that begin with "sol" refer to the sciences and arts (soldoremi - theater, sollasila - mathematics), beginning with "solsol" - to medicine and anatomy (solsoldomi - nerve), words related to time categories begin with "dor": (doredo - hour, dorefa - week, dorela - year). Antonyms are formed by inverting the word: domire - unlimited, remido - limited. There are no synonyms in solresol.

Grammar Features: Parts of speech in solresol are determined by stress. In a noun, it falls on the first syllable: milarefa - criticism, in an adjective - on the penultimate: milarefA - critical, the verb is not stressed, and in the adverb, the stress falls on the last syllable. Nouns officially have three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), but actually two: feminine and non-feminine. In feminine words oral speech the last vowel sound stands out - it is either underlined or a small horizontal line is placed above it.

Examples:

mirami recisolsi- beloved friend

I love you- dore milyasi domi

Ithkuil

Ithkuil is a language created in 1987 by the American linguist John Quijada and, according to his own words"in no way intended to function as natural". Linguists call Ithkuil a super-language that can accelerate thought processes: saying minimal amount sounds, you can convey the maximum amount of information, since the words in Ithkuil are built on the principle of "semantic compression" and are designed to increase the effectiveness of communication.

Alphabet: The alphabet is based on Latin, using diacritics (45 consonants and 13 vowels), but the words are written using Ichtail, an archetypal script that changes depending on morphological role character in a word. In writing, there are many symbols with a double meaning. Also, the text can be written both from left to right and from right to left. Ideally, Ithkuil text should read as a vertical snake, starting from the top left corner.

Pronunciation: Difficult to pronounce language with complex phonology. Most of the letters individually are similar to Latin and are pronounced in the usual way, but in combination with others they turn out to be difficult to pronounce.

Grammar Features: The creator of the language himself says that the grammar is constructed according to "a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, cross-functionality, and reusability." There are no rules in the language as such, but there are certain principles of compatibility of morphemes.

Vocabulary: There are about 3600 semantic roots in Ithkuil. Word formation occurs according to the principles of semantic similarity and grouping. New words are formed by a huge number morphemes (suffixes, prefixes, interfixes, grammatical categories).

Examples:

elaţ eqëiţorf eoļļacôbé- "Brevity is the soul of wit"

Literal translation: A (prototypical) utterance (produced by a prototypical) talented person is compact (i.e., metaphorically reminiscent of the idea of ​​a densely bonded substance).

xwaléix oípřai“lîň olfái”lobîň- "Deep blue Sea". Literal translation: "A large volume of still water, considered as something with new properties, which manifests itself" in a blue way "and at the same time has a more than normal level of depth."

Quenya and other Elvish languages

Elvish languages ​​are dialects invented by the writer and linguist J.R.R. Tolkien in 1910-1920. These languages ​​are spoken by elves in his works. There are many Elvish languages: Quendarin, Quenya, Eldarin, Avarin, Sindarin, Ilkorin, Lemberin, Nandorin, Telerin, etc. Their multiplicity is due to the numerous "divisions" of the Elven people due to frequent wars and migrations. Every Elvish language has both an external history (that is, the history of its creation by Tolkien) and an internal history (the history of its origin in the Elvish world). Elvish languages ​​are popular among fans of Tolkien's work: in Quenya and Sindarin (the two most popular languages) published several magazines.

Alphabet: The Quenya alphabet has 22 consonants and 5 vowels. There are two writing systems for writing words in the Elvish languages: tengwar and kirt (similar to runic writing). Latin transliteration is also used.

Pronunciation: The pronunciation and stress system in Quenya is similar to Latin.

Grammar Features: Nouns in Quenya are declined in 9 cases, with one of the cases called "Elfinitive". Verbs change by tense (present, present perfect, past, past perfect, future and future perfect). Numbers are interesting - there is not only singular and plural, but also dual and multiplex (for an uncountable set of objects). Suffixes are used to form names. certain values, for example -wen - "virgin", -(i)on - "son", -tar - "ruler, king".

Vocabulary: The basis of Quenya was Finnish, Latin and Greek. The Welsh language served as the prototype for Sindarin. Most of the words in one way or another refer to the life of elven settlements, to military operations, to magic and to Everyday life elves.

Example (Quenya):

Harië malta úva carë nér anwavë alya- It's not gold that makes a man really rich

Klingon language

Klingon is a language developed in the 1980s specifically for the TV series' alien race. Star Trek by linguist Mark Okrand. It is well-thought-out: it has its own grammar, stable syntax, writing, and is also actively supported by the Klingon Language Institute, which publishes books and magazines in Klington (including the works of Shakespeare and the Bible translated into Klingon). There is not only a Klingon Wikipedia and a Klingon Google search engine, but also rock bands that only sing in Klingon. In The Hague in 2010, the opera “’u’” was released in this invented dialect (“’u’” means “Universe” in translation).

Pronunciation and alphabet: Phonetically difficult language, which uses a glottal stop to create an alien-sounding effect. Several writing systems have been developed that have the features of Tibetan writing with an abundance of sharp corners in character writing. Latin is also used.

Vocabulary: Formed on the basis of Sanskrit and the languages ​​of the North American Indians. Basically, the syntax is about space and conquest, war, weaponry, and many variations of curses (in Klingon culture, curses are a kind of art). There are many "movie jokes" built into the language: the Klingon word for "couple" is chang'eng (a reference to the twins Chang and Eng).

Grammar Features: Klingon uses affixes to change the meaning of a word. A variety of suffixes are used to convey animation and inanimateness, plurality, gender and other distinguishing features of objects. Verbs also have special suffixes that characterize the action. Word order can be either direct or reverse. Speed ​​in the transfer of information is a decisive factor.

Examples:

tlhIngan Hol Dajatlh'a"?- Do you speak Klingon?

Heghlu'meH QaQ jajvam.- Today is a good day to die.

taH pagh taHbe: DaH mu'tlheghvam vIqelnIS To be or not to be: that is the question

Na "vi

Na vi is a language developed in 2005–2009 by linguist Paul Frommer for James Cameron's film Avatar. Na'vi is spoken by the blue-skinned inhabitants of the planet Pandora. From their language, the word for "vi" is translated as "people".

Pronunciation and vocabulary: Papuan, Australian and Polynesian languages ​​were used as prototypes for na "vi. There are about 1000 words in total in the language. Vocabulary is mostly everyday.

Grammar Features: The concept of gender in na vi no, words denoting men or women can be distinguished using the suffixes an - masculine and e - feminine. The division into "he" and "she" is also optional. Numbers are denoted not by endings, but by prefixes. Adjectives do not decline. Verbs change in tenses (and not the endings of the verbs change, but infixes are added), but not in persons. Due to the fact that the Na'vi have four fingers, they use the octal system. Word order in a sentence is free.

Examples:

Oeyä tukrul txe'lanit tivakuk- Let my spear strike the heart

Kaltxim. Ngaru lu fpom srak?- "Hi how are you doing?" (literally: “Hi, are you okay?”)

Tsun oe ngahu nìNa“vi pivängkxo a fì”u oeru prrte" lu. - "I can communicate with you on na" vi, and it pleases me"

Fìskxawngìri tsap'alute sengi oe. - "I'm sorry about that jerk"

The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Read the text and do tasks 1-3.

(1) None of the artificial languages ​​has become a full-fledged means of communication. (2) The fact is that language is not only and not so much a means of communication: the first purpose of language is to store information accumulated by mankind about the world and man. (3) ____ this is what allows the language to successfully perform its functions; the absence of such a basis prevented artificial languages ​​from fulfilling the tasks assigned to them.

1

Which of the following sentences is correct HOME information contained in the text?

1. The lack of the ability to store the information accumulated by mankind about the world and man prevented artificial languages ​​from becoming a full-fledged means of communication.

2. None of the artificial languages ​​became a full-fledged means of communication, because they did not fulfill the tasks assigned to them.

3. Language is not only and not so much a means of communication, but also a keeper of information accumulated by mankind about the world and man.

4. Artificial languages ​​are not a full-fledged means of communication, since they do not fulfill the main purpose of any language - to store information about the world and a person.

5. The ability to store the information accumulated by mankind about the world and man allows the language to successfully perform its functions.

2

Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write out this word.

1. Probably

3. Fortunately,

5. Hardly

3

Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word MEAN. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the first (1) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

TOOL, -a, cf.

1. Reception, method of action for achieving something. Simple s. To achieve by all means. All means are good for someone. (Someone does not disdain anything to achieve their goals, success; neod.).

2. A tool (object, set of devices) for the implementation of some kind of. activities. Means of transport. Means of protection.

3. A medicine, an item necessary for treatment, as well as an item of cosmetics (in 2 values). Medicines. C. for cough. Dressings. Cosmetical tools.

4. Mn. Money, loans. Working capital. Set aside funds for something.

5. Mn. Capital, state. Man of means. Living beyond one's means (spending more than one's income, fortune) allows.

4

In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.

accountants

plum

repeated

seal

5

In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

1. One of my uncles liked to READ verses, that is, to read them in a singsong voice.

2. What a pity that modern schoolchildren do not feel the BENEFITS of the book: it true friend, it is a beacon in doubt, it is an anchor in a storm of passion!

3. In the Renaissance, a new GLASS material was found, crystal clear and perfect in terms of plasticity.

4. Listening to his HARD but still articulate speech, thinned out with jokes, was creepy.

5. He was one of those limited people who are especially pleasant precisely because of their LIMITEDness.

6

In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

pair of stockings

DESIRED variant

in 150 meters

sent the magazine with a BANDEROL

LONGER than a pencil

7

Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

OFFERS	GRAMMATICAL ERRORS
A) In the works of Saltykov-Shchedrin there is both a satire on the ruling circles and on the townsfolk.	1) misuse case form noun with preposition
B) Whoever came to our city admired its provincial antiquity.	2) violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate
C) He thanked the professor and added that he would certainly take into account your wishes.	3) violation in the construction of a proposal with an inconsistent application
D) Upon arrival in the capital, we hurried on an excursion.	4) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members
E) Turning to scientists for clarification, I want to learn something new.	5) incorrect construction of a sentence with a participial turnover
	6) violation in the construction of a sentence with participial turnover
	7) incorrect sentence construction with indirect speech

Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.

8

Determine the word in which the unstressed unchecked vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

reg... kitten

time ... to get involved

magical

agreement

9

Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.

n...eating, pr...parents

pr ... hail, pr ... be able

ra...ghosting, nor...fall

to...bite, o...row

ra ... be generous, and ... support

10

Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.

suede

magnesium...

toy...

assign...

harden...

11

Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap.

hear...my

checked ... who

stand ... sh

parted ... sh

naveva... my

12

Identify the sentence in which NOT is written SEPARATELY with the word. Open the brackets and write out this word.

1. Indifferent to native nature a person (not) can love his homeland.

2. (Un)paved street went straight into the field.

3. Air is (not) movable.

4. In the morning there is (un)experienced heat.

5. A person with an indignant conscience becomes stronger (un)bad.

13

Define a sentence in which both underlined words are written THROUGH THE HYPHEN. Open the brackets and write out these two words.

1. In the heat, all living things hid WHERE (THAT) and are afraid to raise their heads, THAT (WOULD) not burn their hair and burn their nose.

2. Pavel recognized the very first, (IN)CHILDLY naive buildings in the park: a monk's hut, an arbor (IN) THE FORM of a tower.

3. Everything was good and HOW (THAT) especially, not (FOR) ALWAYS clear and close.

4. Among the shrubs, you can still see (SOME) ANY representatives of the flora, for example, wild rose, lemongrass, and ALSO (SAME) viburnum.

5. Now between the small surviving islands of the forest on the slopes of the hill RARE (RARE), but EVERYTHING (SAME) juniper bushes grow.

14

Indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) one letter N is written.

I remember both the evening pale blue fogs, and the night ones, pierced by (1) lu (2) light (they seem silver (3)), and morning (4) s, pale pink, colored (5) dawn.

15

Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.

1. Frost taps on the trunks and branches of thick trees and light silver hoarfrost falls in flakes.

2. Among meadow grasses there are also anise and chamomile and St. John's wort and yarrow.

3. In Japan, evergreen trees and shrubs grow with hard and shiny leaves - camellias.

4. The day was perfectly clear, quiet and hot.

5. The sun stood directly above the forest and incessantly baked his back and head.

16

Waves (1) running ashore (2) fell heavily (3) breaking into spray (4) hissed evil (5) rolling down from the stones.

17

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentences.

1) Yazykov, who possessed (1) according to Pushkin (2) an amazing fire of language, in one of his poems he magnificently described the Volga and the Oka.

2) And when he told me this story, then (3) according to him (4) everything turned out completely differently.

18

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

Not the smart one (1) who knows how to distinguish good from evil (2) but the one (3) who knows how to choose the lesser of two evils.

19

Place punctuation marks: indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) in the sentence should be commas.

It was a dazzling mid-March morning (1) when the snow settled everywhere to the ground (2) and compacted in the fields (3) and only the roadsides were already cut by the sun.

20

Edit the sentence: correct lexical error replacing the misused word. Write down the chosen word, observing the norms of modern Russian literary language.

We wished the organizers to gather such evenings more often.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.

(1) How little Kolya remembered himself in the war, he was always hungry. (2) He could not get used to, adjust to hunger, and his sunken eyes gleamed angrily, constantly looking for prey. (H) Black-haired, uncut, disheveled, with protruding ribs, he looked like a small, emaciated wolf cub. (4) At home they gave him a chatter and bread. (5) Mother added brooms to the flour - threshed panicles of millet, and the bread was heavy, viscous; he smelled of damp clay. (6) But the hungry boy ate this bread instantly.

(7) Once in the entire war, he ate plenty of bread. (8) And the bread was not from brooms - real. (9) Our machine gunners brought him with them. (10) They entered the hut at night. (11) Little Kolya hid in a corner and cautiously watched the aliens. (12) And then a high-cheeked soldier, limping on his left leg, noticed him. (13) He beckoned Kolya to him:

(14) - Hey, master, come here. (15) Do you want some bread?

(16) The boy wanted to shout: “I want! Want!" (17) But a lump rolled up in my throat. (18) He could not utter a word and silently swallowed saliva.

(19) - You probably had a hearty dinner?

(20) Kolya blinked in confusion, and the big-cheeked soldier untied the bag and thrust a large piece of bread into his hand. (21) The hungry boy felt dizzy. (22) He climbed onto the stove, closed his eyes and clung to the bread. (23) He breathed bread, warmed it with his hands and cheek. (24) He bit off the crumb, then gnawed the crust with cheerful excitement. (25) The late satiety sweetly spilled over the body. (26) He fell asleep. (27) And all night he dreamed of bread.

(28) ... When the war was coming to an end, the mother sowed a strip of wheat in the garden. (29) Soon timid shoots sprouted from the ground. (30) Then the ears appeared - big-eyed, bluish, slightly misted. (31) Then the strip became straw.

(32) When the first harvest was harvested, the grandmother, in joy, baked two sunflower-sized cakes. (33) The cakes were fragrant, ruddy. (34) Grandmother smeared them with an oil feather and sprinkled with salt, large, like crushed glass. (35) Heat came from the cakes, and they glowed like two small salted suns.

(36) The boy was sitting in front of the table, and his sunken eyes were rooted to the cakes. (37) He was waiting to be treated, and inhaled the warm spirit of baked bread. (38) He could hardly restrain himself so as not to reach out and take an enviable treat without asking. (39) Finally, the grandmother came up to him and said:

(40) - Taste, granddaughter, my cake.

(41) Some kind of hidden spring worked inside - the hands instantly rushed to the cake, the fingers squeezed it tightly and pulled it into the mouth.

(42) The crust burned the lips, the salt pinched the tongue, the nostrils swelled, afraid to miss a bit of the delicious smell. (43) Korzh soon died ... (44) Kolya sighed heavily. (45) And the second cake, ruddy, whole and probably even more delicious, lay on the table and smiled invitingly with all his face.

(46) - Take this cake to your grandfather in the apiary, - said the grandmother.

(48) Grandmother wrapped the hot cake in burdock and handed it to Kolya.

(49) Grandfather was delighted. (50) He turned the cake in his hands and sniffed. (51) And Kolya stood in front of the old man, absorbed in the hope that his grandfather would break the cake in half.

(52) But the grandfather did not eat the present, but took it to the hut. (53) What a greedy grandfather! (54) Completely wild with his bees. (55) He specially hid the cake so as not to share it and then calmly chew it, dipping it in sticky buckwheat honey.

(56) Kolya was about to leave. (57)B last minute when grandfather held out a knapsack with dirty linen - let the grandmother wash it! - something trembled in Kolya, and he almost asked his grandfather for a piece of cake. (58) But he managed to overcome a momentary weakness. (59) And he was silent.

(60) He walked slowly, waving a knapsack, and thought that when the war ended, there would be a lot of bread in the house and he would eat cakes in the morning, afternoon and evening. (61) And now the grandfather is eating the cake - he, Kolya, has already eaten his own.

(62) At home, he shoved a knapsack to his grandmother and grunted:

(63) - Grandfather ordered to stretch!

(64) Grandmother silently began to lay out grandfather's underwear on the bench. (65) At the bottom of the knapsack was a clean rag tied in a knot. (66) Grandmother slowly untied the knot with naughty fingers. (67) There was a cake in a rag. (68) She didn't say anything. (69) She put an unexpected present in front of her grandson.