What is the method of conversation in psychology. R&D: Psychodiagnostic possibilities of conversation

Conversation is one of the main methods of psychology and pedagogy, which involves obtaining information about the phenomenon under study in logical form both from the studied person, members of the studied group, and from the surrounding people. In the latter case, the conversation acts as an element of the method of generalization of independent characteristics. scientific value method is to establish personal contact with the object of study, the ability to obtain data promptly, clarify them in the form of an interview.

The conversation can be formalized and non-formalized. formalized conversation involves a standardized formulation of questions and registration of answers to them, which allows you to quickly group and analyze the information received. informal conversation is carried out on non-rigidly standardized issues, which makes it possible to consistently put additional questions based on the current situation. During a conversation of this type, as a rule, closer contact is achieved between the researcher and the respondent, which contributes to obtaining the most complete and in-depth information.

In the practice of psychological and pedagogical research, certain rules for applying the conversation method have been developed:

♦ talk only on issues directly related to the problem under study;

♦ formulate questions clearly and clearly, taking into account the degree of competence of the interlocutor in them;

♦ select and pose questions in an understandable form that encourages respondents to give detailed answers to them;

♦ avoid incorrect questions, take into account the mood, subjective state of the interlocutor;

♦ conduct a conversation in such a way that the interlocutor sees in the researcher not a leader, but a comrade showing genuine interest in his life, thoughts, aspirations;

♦ not to conduct a conversation in a hurry, in an excited state;

♦ choose a place and time for the conversation so that no one interferes with its progress, maintain a friendly attitude.

Usually the conversation process is not accompanied by logging. However, the researcher can, if necessary, make some notes for himself, which will allow him to fully restore the entire course of the conversation after the end of the work. The protocol or diary as a form of registration of the results of the study is best filled out after the end of the conversation. AT individual cases can be used technical means its registration - tape recorder or voice recorder. But at the same time, the respondent must be informed that the recording of the conversation will be carried out using the appropriate technique. In case of refusal, the use of these funds is not recommended.

At present, insufficient attention is paid in the scientific literature to the analysis this method research. At the same time, it is recognized that with the help of a conversation one can obtain very valuable information, which sometimes cannot be obtained by other methods. The form of conversation, like no other method, must be mobile, dynamic. In one case, the purpose of the conversation is to obtain one or another important information- can be hidden, as this achieves greater reliability of the data. In another case, on the contrary, an attempt to obtain objective information with the help of indirect questions can cause a negative, skeptical reaction from the participants in the conversation (such as "Making a smartass"). The likelihood of such a reaction is especially high in people with high self-esteem. In such situations, the researcher will receive more reliable information if he takes such a position, for example: "You know a lot, help us." Such a position is usually reinforced by an increased interest in obtaining information. This tends to encourage people to be more frank and sincere. Calling a person to frankness and listening to him is a great art. Naturally, the frankness of people should be valued and carefully, ethically handle the information received. The frankness of the conversation increases when the researcher does not take any notes.

In a conversation, the researcher communicates with the specialist. In the process of this communication, certain relations of two personalities to each other are formed. They are made up of small touches, nuances that bring two people together or separate them as individuals. In most cases, the researcher strives for rapprochement in communication with the personality of the respondent. However, there are cases when the rapprochement, the achieved frankness, must be “curtailed”, again return to a certain distance in communication. For example, sometimes the respondent, having caught the sincere interest of the researcher (and interest in most cases is psychologically regarded as internal agreement with what the respondent says to him), begins to impose his, as a rule, subjective point of view, seeks to eliminate the distance in communication, etc. In this situation, it is unreasonable to go for further rapprochement, since ending the conversation with complete harmony in communication, even if purely external, can lead to negative consequences. Therefore, it is psychologically expedient for the researcher to end the conversation with such people by setting a certain boundary or disagreeing with something. This will protect him from an excessive negative reaction of the interlocutor in the future. To create these subtle facets of communication is a real art, which should be based on the researcher's knowledge of people's psychology.

Survey methods in the structure of psychological and pedagogical research

Interrogation methods of psychological and pedagogical research are written or oral, direct or indirect appeals of the researcher to respondents with questions, the content of the answers to which reveals certain aspects of the problem under study. These methods are used when the source necessary information people become direct participants in the processes and phenomena being studied. With the help of survey methods, one can obtain information both about events and facts, and about the opinions, assessments, and preferences of the respondents.

The significance of survey methods in psychology and pedagogy is the greater, the weaker the provision of the studied sphere (psychological and pedagogical processes and phenomena) with research information and the less this sphere is accessible to direct observation. However, survey methods are not universal. They are most fruitfully used in combination with other methods of psychological and pedagogical research.

The widespread use of survey methods is explained by the fact that the information received from respondents is often richer and more detailed than that which can be obtained using other methods. It is easy to process, it can be obtained relatively quickly and cheaply.

Among the disadvantages of survey methods are the following:

♦ subjectivity of the information received: respondents often tend to overestimate the significance of some facts or phenomena, their role in them;

♦ distortion of information, which can occur due to methodological errors in compiling research tools, determining sampling frame("samples"), data interpretation;

♦ the lack of necessary information by the respondents.

Survey methods in psychological and pedagogical research are used in the following forms: in the form of an interview (oral survey), questionnaire (written survey), expert survey, testing (with standardized forms for evaluating survey results), as well as using sociometry, which allows you to

show interpersonal relationships in a group of people. Let us briefly characterize each of these methods.

Questionnaire- method empirical research, based on a survey of a significant number of respondents and used to obtain information about the typicality of certain psychological and pedagogical phenomena.

This method makes it possible to set general views, people's opinions on certain issues; identify the motivation of their activities, the system of relations.

There are the following survey options: personal(with direct contact between the researcher and the respondent) or indirect(questionnaires are distributed by handout, and respondents answer them in convenient time); individual or group; continuous or selective.

As in a conversation, the questionnaire is based on a special questionnaire - a questionnaire. Based on the fact that the questionnaire is a research document developed in accordance with established rules, containing a series of questions and statements ordered in content and form, often with options for answers to them, its development requires special attention, thoughtfulness."

The questionnaire should include three semantic parts:

♦ introductory, which contains the purpose and motivation of the survey, emphasizes the importance of the respondent's participation in it, guarantees the secrecy of answers and clearly sets out the rules for filling out the questionnaire;

♦ main, consisting of a list of questions to be answered;

♦ socio-demographic, designed to reveal the main biographical data and social status of the respondent.

Practice shows that when developing It is advisable to take into account the following basic requirements in the research questionnaire:

♦ to test (pilot) the questionnaire in order to check and evaluate its validity (validity), search the best option and volume of questions;

♦ explain, before starting the survey, its purpose and implications for the results of the study;

♦ ask questions correctly, as this implies a respectful attitude towards the respondents;

♦ allow anonymous responses;

♦ eliminate the possibility of ambiguous interpretation of questions and the use special terms and foreign words, which may not be clear to the respondents;

♦ ensure that the question does not ask for an assessment of several facts at once or an opinion on several events at the same time;

♦ build a questionnaire according to the principle: from simpler questions to more complex ones;

♦ not to get carried away with wordy, long questions and the proposed answers to them, as this makes it difficult to understand and increases the time to complete them;

♦ put questions in linear (each subsequent question develops, specifies the previous one) and cross (the answer to one question checks the reliability of the answer to another question) ways, which creates a favorable psychological attitude among the respondents and a desire to give sincere answers;

♦ provide for the possibility of quickly processing a large number of responses using the methods of mathematical statistics.

The experience of conducting surveys indicates that the respondent gives more complete and meaningful answers when the questionnaire includes not a large number of questions (no more than 7-10).

When compiling the questionnaire, several options for constructing questions are used. These are open, closed, and semi-closed questions, as well as filter and ranking questions.

open call questions to which respondents must independently give answers and enter them in specially designated places in the questionnaire or in a special form. Such questions are used in cases where the researcher seeks to involve the respondent in active work on the formation of proposals, advice on any problem or when the set of alternatives for the question being asked is not entirely clear.

Closed are the questions to which the questionnaire offers possible options answers. They are used in cases where the researcher clearly imagines what the answers to the question may be, or when it is necessary to evaluate something according to certain features important for studying, etc. The advantages of closed questions are: the ability to exclude misunderstanding of the question, compare answers various groups respondents, as well as the ease of filling out the questionnaire and processing the data received. semi-closed question differs from the closed one in that, in addition to the proposed answers, there is a kind of line on which the respondent can reflect his personal opinion on the merits of the question. This is done in cases where the researcher is not sure that the list of possible alternatives will be enough for the respondent to express his opinion.

The number of answer options in closed and semi-closed questions should not be too large - a maximum of 15. In addition, in any question of a closed or semi-closed type, an alternative should be given: "Difficult to answer." This is necessary so that respondents who do not know how to answer the question, or do not have a definite opinion on the issue raised in it, can reflect their position.

Quite often in questionnaires are used filter questions. They consist simultaneously, as it were, of two questions: first, it turns out whether the respondent belongs to certain group or whether he knows the fact (phenomenon), which will be discussed further. Then the respondents who answered in the affirmative are invited to express their opinion or assessment of the fact, event, property.

There is another type of questionnaire questions used in psychological and pedagogical research - ranking questions. They are used when among the many answers it is required to identify the most important and significant for the respondent. In this case, the respondent assigns a corresponding number to each answer, depending on the degree of its importance.

Of significant importance preliminary testing of the questionnaire. External signs of answers (stereotyping, monosyllabicity, alternativeness, a significant number of answers like “I don’t know”, “I find it difficult to answer” or omissions, white stripes; “guessing” the answer that is desirable for the researcher, etc.) indicate that the wording questions are complex, inaccurate, to a certain extent duplicated one another, similar in content, that the respondents did not realize the significance of the survey being conducted, the importance for the researcher of truthful answers.

A questionnaire survey is an accessible, but also more vulnerable to all sorts of subjectivist "reefs" research method. It cannot be absolutized, carried away by "anketomania". It is advisable for the researcher to resort to it only in cases where it becomes necessary to identify the opinion of a large number of people he does not know. In other words, you cannot replace the study real facts studying opinions about them. With the correct application of the questionnaire, you can get reliable and objective information.

Interview- a type of survey method, special kind purposeful communication with a person or a group of people.

The basis of the interview is a simple conversation. However, unlike it, the roles of the interlocutors are fixed, normalized, and the goals are determined by the design and objectives of the study.

Specificity the interview consists in the fact that the researcher determines in advance only the topic of the upcoming conversation and the main questions to which he would like to receive answers. All the necessary information, as a rule, is drawn from the information obtained in the process of communication between the person taking the interview (interviewer) and the person giving it. The success of the interview, the completeness and quality of the information received largely depend on the nature of this communication, the closeness of contact and the degree of mutual understanding of the parties.

The interview has its advantages and disadvantages compared to the questionnaire. The main difference between them is in the form of contact. When questioning, the communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by the questionnaire. The questions contained in it, their meaning, the respondent interprets independently within the limits of his knowledge. He forms the answer and fixes it in the questionnaire in the way indicated in the text of the questionnaire, or announced by the person conducting the survey. During the interview, the contact between the researcher and the person - the source of information, is carried out with the help of a specialist (interviewer), who asks the questions provided for by the research program, organizes and directs the conversation with the respondents, and also records the answers received according to the instructions.

In this case, the following are clearly Benefits of an interview: Firstly, in the course of working with respondents, it is possible to take into account the level of their preparation, determine their attitude to the topic of the survey, individual problems, fix intonation and facial expressions. Secondly, it becomes possible to flexibly change the wording of questions, taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers. Thirdly, you can put additional (clarifying, control, suggestive, explanatory, etc.) questions. Fourth, the proximity of the interview to an ordinary conversation contributes to the emergence of a relaxed atmosphere of communication and sincerity of answers. Fifthly, the interviewer can monitor the psychological reactions of the interlocutor and, if necessary, correct the conversation.

As main disadvantage This method should highlight the high complexity of the work with a small number of respondents.

According to the goal that the researcher seeks to realize, they distinguish opinion interview, clarifying the assessment of phenomena, events, and documentary interview, related to the establishment of facts 1 .

One of the most effective methods of collecting information in psychological and pedagogical research is expert survey, involving the acquisition of data using the knowledge of competent persons.

They are understood not as ordinary respondents, but as highly qualified, experienced specialists who give an opinion when considering any issue. The results of surveys based on the judgment of specialists are called expert assessments. Therefore, this method is often called the method of expert assessments.

The method of expert survey in psychological and pedagogical research is used to solve the following problems:

♦ clarification of the main provisions of the research methodology, determination of procedural issues, choice of methods and techniques for collecting and processing information;

♦ assessing the reliability and refinement of data from mass surveys, especially when there is a risk of their distortion;

♦ deeper analysis of the research results and forecasting the nature of changes in the studied psychological and pedagogical phenomenon;

♦ confirmation and clarification of information obtained using other methods;

♦ analysis of research results, especially if they allow different interpretations.

In each of the cases mentioned, an expert survey is subordinated to the goals and objectives of a particular study and is one of the tools for collecting information about the object under study. Increasing the reliability of the results of an expert survey is achieved with the help of logical and statistical procedures, the selection of specialists, the organization of the survey, and the processing of the data obtained.

Practice shows that the more experts are involved in the assessment, the more accurate the overall result, the more accurately the level of development of a person's personality, a group of respondents is diagnosed. Taking into account the opinion of all experts on all estimated parameters is a difficult task. In order to optimize the generalization of expert opinions, quantitative estimates are usually used. Experts are invited to express their opinion on a five-point (sometimes three- or four-point) discrete scale. To assess the quality of personality, the following scale is usually used:

5 - very high level development given quality personality, it has become a character trait, manifested in various types activities; 4 - a high level of development of this personality trait, but it is not yet manifested in all types of activities;

3 - the assessed and the opposite quality of the personality are not expressed in relief and generally balance each other;

2 - markedly more pronounced and more often manifested the quality of the personality, the opposite of the assessed

1 - the opposite of the assessed quality is clearly expressed and manifested in various activities, has become a personality trait.

These are the most general criteria for formalizing expert opinions. In each case, when evaluating certain parameters, more specific and meaningful criteria are determined.

In the case when the opinion of experts is expressed quantitatively, the research method under consideration is often called polar score method.

Formalization of expert opinions makes it possible to use mathematical and statistical methods 1 and modern computer technology in processing the results of the study. It can be carried out not only on a scale of order, but also by ranking individuals (groups or microgroups), that is, by arranging them in ascending (or descending) order of one or another of their attributes.

Suppose you can make a list of respondents according to their degree of discipline. If the first in the list is the most disciplined of them, the second is the closest in terms of the degree of development of this personality trait, etc. The list will be closed by the most undisciplined. Naturally, this list will be strictly individual for each expert. The measure of consensus among experts can be measured by applying various correlation coefficients, such as Spearman's correlation coefficient. For example, two experts ranked specialists according to the degree of their discipline in this order.

	Iexpert	II expert	d	d2
BUT
B			-2
AT			-1
G
D

Sum d n= 6.

The Spearman correlation coefficient is found by the following formula:

where Rs- rank correlation coefficient (it can range from +1 to -1), D 2 i is the square of the rank differences, N- the number of people being compared.

We substitute the results obtained into the proposed formula

This is a fairly high level of agreement among experts. In practice, there are cases when the consensus of opinions of experts is assessed and negative value Spearman's correlation coefficient. At Rs= -1 - there is a complete opposite of the opinions of experts. At Rs = + 1 - their complete match. However, in most cases Rs ranges from 0.5 to 0.9. This is usually the real degree of convergence of opinions of experts. The degree of accuracy of expert assessments depends on the skill level of experts, their number and the number of ranking objects. It is important for experts to be observant, life experience, the practice of working with people, their opinion was not deformed by conflict relations with assessed individuals or relationships of off-duty dependence. These requirements are best met by team leaders. However, the assessments of fellow students of the respondents are very important and useful. A strong difference in the assessments "from below" and "from above" may be a sign of ignorance of the essential features of the person being assessed.

It is believed that the accuracy of expert assessments depends on the number of experts. In some cases, the opinion of 15-20 experts is used. This is explained by the fact that the relations between the respondents are in most cases multifaceted. Number of ranked personal qualities or other signs, as a rule, there should not be more than 20, and this procedure is most reliable when their number is less than 10.

The peer review method is also called GOL method(group assessment of personality). Abroad, it is often called the "method of competent judges", or "rating". When each member of the group acts as an expert in assessing the relationship between themselves and other respondents (according to a certain criterion), then the method of expert assessments turns into a sociometric procedure - one of the main methods of research in social psychology and pedagogy.

sociometric method(method of sociometry) allows you to identify interpersonal relationships in a group of people with the help of their preliminary survey.

Relations between people are predetermined by objective necessity. joint activities(it gives rise to the official group structure) and emotional factor- likes and dislikes (this factor gives rise to informal relationships in the group). You can find out the informal relationships of people, the structure of their relationships, likes and dislikes with the help of simple questions like: “With whom would you like to spend free time?”, “Who would you like to work with?” etc. These questions are the criteria for sociometric choice. They can be very diverse.

To study the structure of relationships in a group, sociometry is used in two versions: parametric and non-parametric. Parametric sociometry consists in the fact that the subjects are asked to make a strictly defined number of choices according to a given criterion. For example, name five comrades with whom he would like to spend his free time together. Nonparametric sociometry allows you to select and reject any number of individuals, provided that the subjects have a positive attitude towards the study. Otherwise, there may be answers: “I choose all” or “I reject all”, which significantly distort the results of the survey.

It is important that sociometric choice occurs according to significant criteria. This is due to the fact that the structure of interpersonal relations, revealed by different criteria, will not be the same. And choosing some question - the criterion of sociometric choice, the researcher, as it were, predicts what kind of group structure he would like to reveal: the one that manifests itself in the process of rest or in the process of joint educational activity. If the sociometric procedure is carried out according to two or more criteria, then a separate matrix is ​​compiled for each criterion. Below is an example of compiling one of these matrices.

Selection matrix

Who chooses				Who is chosen		Total
		+								+
	+			+		+
		+		+			+	+
		+
			+				+
				+						+
		+		+						+
				+
					+
	+			+
Total

In the matrix, each number in order corresponds to a specific surname. The results of the sociometric survey serve as the basis for the analysis of students' relationships. By simple calculations, by the number of positive or negative choices made and mutual choices, the following sociometric indices can be determined: the need for communication, the sociometric status of a group member, psychological compatibility, group unity, group disunity, group cohesion. In addition, it is possible to identify the leaders of the group, the presence of microgroups in it, as well as members of the group who do not enjoy authority in it.

For a more visual representation of the system of likes and dislikes of the subjects, a sociogram is used. A certain symbolism is adopted for compiling sociograms. Using it, the results of the sociometric measurement given in the selection matrix are reflected on the sociogram (Fig. 4.1).

Rice. 4.1. Sociogram

The arrows on the sociogram indicate who chooses whom. If the arrow is bidirectional, then the choice is mutual. Sometimes the dotted line on the sociogram also displays the negative attitude of the subjects to each other.

When conducting a sociometric survey, it is advisable to ensure the confidentiality of the information received in order to increase the objectivity of the study. The results of the study should be interpreted with caution.

Virtues sociometrics are considered:

♦ opportunity for a short time collect significant material that can be statistically processed and can be presented visually;

♦ the possibility of registering relations between all members of the group.

To shortcomings sociometrics include:

♦ fixation of predominantly emotional relations, expressed in likes and dislikes;

♦ impossibility to reveal the true motives of the elections;

♦ the fact that the number of mutual elections may reflect not so much the cohesion of the group as the friendly ties of individual microgroups.

Thus, sociometry allows you to quickly reveal the structure of interpersonal relations in a group, the system of likes and dislikes, but it does not always allow you to reliably diagnose the meaningful characteristics of communication, relationships.

The individual and the group are specific objects of psychological and pedagogical research, which have significant features, which predetermine the use of a number of special methods for studying the productivity of the system of influence on these objects. One of them is the testing method.

Test method- the performance by the test subjects of tasks of a certain kind with precise methods for evaluating the results and their numerical expression.

This method allows you to identify the level of knowledge, skills, abilities and other personality traits, as well as their compliance with certain standards by analyzing how the subjects perform a number of special tasks. Such tasks are called tests.

“A test is a standardized task or tasks related in a special way that allow the researcher to diagnose the degree of severity of the studied property in the subject, his psychological characteristics, as well as relations to certain objects. As a result of testing, some characteristic is usually obtained, showing the degree of severity of the studied feature in a person. It must be comparable with the norms established for this category of subjects” 1 .

Therefore, with the help of testing, it is possible to determine the existing level of development of a certain property in the object of study and compare it with the standard or with the development of this quality in the subject in an earlier period.

Tests are characterized by the following features: objectivity(excluding the influence of random factors on the subject), modeling(expression in the task of any complex, complex whole phenomenon), standardization(the establishment of the same requirements and norms in the analysis of the properties of the subjects, or processes and results).

By direction The tests are divided into achievement tests, ability tests and personality tests.

Achievement Tests mainly didactic, determining the level of mastering the educational material, the formation of students' knowledge, skills and abilities. Didactic test should be understood as a system of tasks of a specific form and content, arranged in order of increasing difficulty created with the aim of objective evaluation structures and measurements of the level of preparedness of students. Thus, it is advisable to consider a didactic test not as an ordinary set or set of tasks, but as a system that has two main system factors: the content composition test items, forming the best integrity, and increasing difficulty from task to task. The principle of increasing difficulty allows you to determine the level of knowledge and skills in a controlled discipline, and the mandatory limitation of testing time - to identify the presence of skills and abilities. Task difficulty as a subjective concept is determined empirically, by the magnitude of the proportion of incorrect answers. This difficulty differs from an objective indicator - complexity, which is understood as the totality of the number of concepts included in the task, the number of logical connections between them and the number of operations necessary to complete the task. Note that the test items are not questions or tasks, but statements that, depending on the answers of the subjects, turn into true or false.

Ability tests most often associated with the diagnosis of the cognitive sphere of the individual, the characteristics of thinking and are usually called intellectual. They allow us to judge not only the results in the assimilation of a certain educational material, but also the respondent's prerequisites for completing tasks of a given type, class. These include, for example, the Raven test, the Amthauer test, Wechsler subtests, etc.

Personality Tests make it possible, by reaction to the test tasks, to judge the features of personality properties - orientation, temperament, character traits. Manifestations of personality traits are evoked by presenting projective material (unfinished sentences, images stimulating respondents' associative reactions).

The testing method is the most controversial and at the same time widespread in the study of personality. What is the controversy of this method? What difficulties began to be recognized in test-tology? What hinders its spread?

First of all, successful completion of the test normal conditions does not mean the success of similar mental efforts in a difficult environment. A respondent who received a high score on test results under normal conditions may turn out to be emotionally unstable to stress, get lost in dangerous situation. Of course, in order to bring the conditions of solving the test closer to real social conditions, it is possible to create tension among the subjects in the process of testing, reduce the time for solving the test, introduce elements of imitation of these conditions, etc., which greatly complicates the use of test methods.

Student's answer (02/06/2015)

No. 1 Conversation as a method of psychology: concept, types, features of organization and conduct, advantages and disadvantages. The method of conversation includes certain requirements for the atmosphere in which communication is carried out: a conversation plan must be planned in advance with the allocation of questions that are subject to mandatory clarification. An atmosphere of mutual and unconstrained trust must be created. It is also necessary to be able to use indirect questions that help to obtain the necessary information. In the case when, during a conversation, the questioner judges the subject under study by the speech reactions of the respondent (that is, the interviewee), then the conversation is considered as a research method. So the researcher should be able to find out the reliability of the data that the interviewee provides him. This can be obtained through observation, research and additional information received from others. Conversation as a diagnostic method is considered in the case of communication in the form of an interview. With the help of this method, a person receives information of a general content, which is aimed at studying the personality traits, character of a person, clarifying his interests and inclinations, attitudes towards certain people, etc. Consider the pros and cons that the conversation method carries. Advantages of the conversation method: 1. Ability to ask questions in the correct sequence. pros and cons of the conversation method 2. The possibility of using auxiliary material (recording questions on a card, etc.). 3. Analyzing the non-verbal reactions of the interviewed person, one can draw an additional conclusion about the reliability of the answers. Disadvantages of the conversation method: 1. It takes a lot of time. 2. You must have the appropriate skills to conduct an effective conversation. It must be remembered that a properly conducted conversation can be a guarantee of the quality of the information received. in accordance with the logic of scientific research, the development of a research methodology is carried out. It is a complex of theoretical and empirical methods, the combination of which makes it possible to investigate complex and multifunctional objects with the greatest reliability. The use of a number of methods makes it possible to comprehensively study the problem under study, all its aspects and parameters. Observation is a purposeful perception of a phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material. At the same time, records (protocols) of observations are kept. Observation is usually carried out according to a predetermined plan with the allocation of specific objects of observation. The following stages of observation can be distinguished: - definition of tasks and goals (for what, for what purpose the observation is carried out); - choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe); - choice of the method of observation that has the least influence on the object under study and provides the most necessary information (how to observe); - choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records); - processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result). Distinguish between observation included, when the researcher becomes a member of the group in which the observation is carried out, and not included - "from outside"; open and hidden (incognito); complete and selective. Observation is a very accessible method, but it has its drawbacks related to the fact that the results of observation are influenced by personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) researcher. Survey methods - conversation, interview, questioning. Conversation is an independent or additional research method used to obtain the necessary information or clarify what was not clear enough during observation. The conversation is conducted according to a predetermined plan, highlighting issues that need to be clarified. It is conducted in a free form without recording the interlocutor's answers. Interviewing is a type of conversation. When interviewing, the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. During the interview, responses are recorded openly. Questioning is a method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire.

Student's answer (20.05.2015)

Every day, almost every adult has to talk with other personalities. Sometimes conversations can be purely friendly, the main purpose of which is to have a good time. And there are also such conversations, the conduct of which involves receiving certain results that both parties will be satisfied with. The method of conversation in psychology implies a type of survey that is based on a thoughtful and prepared conversation, the purpose of which is to obtain specific information, facts on the issue being studied, discussed. Psychological verbally - communicative method, consists in providing that the conversation is a thematically directed dialogue between the psychologist and the respondent in order to obtain information from the respondent. The method of conversation includes certain requirements for the atmosphere in which communication is carried out: a conversation plan must be planned in advance with the allocation of questions that are subject to mandatory clarification. An atmosphere of mutual and unconstrained trust must be created. It is also necessary to be able to use indirect questions that help to obtain the necessary information. In the case when, during a conversation, the questioner judges the subject under study by the speech reactions of the respondent (that is, the interviewee), then the conversation is considered as a research method. So the researcher should be able to find out the reliability of the data that the interviewee provides him. This can be obtained through observation, research and additional information received from others. Conversation as a diagnostic method is considered in the case of communication in the form of an interview. With the help of this method, a person receives information of a general content, which is aimed at studying the personality traits, character of a person, clarifying his interests and inclinations, attitudes towards certain people, etc. Consider the pros and cons that the conversation method carries. Advantages of the conversation method: Ability to ask questions in the correct sequence. pros and cons of the conversation method Possibility to use auxiliary material (recording questions on a card, etc.). Analyzing the non-verbal reactions of the interviewed person, one can draw an additional conclusion about the reliability of the answers. Disadvantages of the conversation method: It takes a lot of time. It is necessary to have the appropriate skills to conduct an effective conversation. It must be remembered that a properly conducted conversation can be a guarantee of the quality of the information received.

Conversation method

Obtaining information in the process of direct communication between the researcher and the respondent is typical for the method of conversation (interview). A conversation is a more "psychological" form of questioning, since it involves the interaction of subjects, subject to certain socio-psychological patterns. The most important condition for the success of the conversation is to establish contact between the researcher and the respondent, to create a trusting atmosphere of communication. The researcher must win over the interviewee, call him to frankness.

The method of conversation is a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically oriented dialogue between a psychologist and a respondent in order to obtain information from the latter.

Conversation is a method of studying human behavior that is specific to psychology, since in others natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of research is impossible. A dialogue between two people in which one person reveals psychological features another, is called the method of conversation. Psychologists of various schools and trends widely use it in their research.

The conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview. Researchers distinguish between a clinical conversation, an integral part of the "clinical method", and a purposeful face-to-face interview - an interview. The content of the conversations can be recorded completely or selectively, depending on the specific objectives of the study. When compiling full protocols of conversations, the psychologist can use a voice recorder.

Compliance with all the necessary conditions for conducting a conversation, including the collection of preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective tool. psychological research. Therefore, it is desirable that the interview be conducted taking into account the data obtained using methods such as observation and questionnaires. In this case, its purpose may be to test the preliminary conclusions that follow from the results psychological analysis and obtained by using these methods of primary orientation in the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects.

In oral situations speech communication those who communicate are dealing with their own speeches. The listener forms speech in accordance with how the speaker's articulatory apparatus excites processes in the air. The listener automatically selects, launches and executes the previously formed neuroprograms corresponding to them, which he subjectively perceives as the speaker's speech. The speaker has his own processes, which cannot be the property of the listener. The speaker may imagine that he is conveying his thoughts to the listener, informing him, conveying information. The listener can only have his own thought processes, the results of which may suit the speaker or not, but these results are also not given directly to the speaker. He can guess about them, having orientation models of the situation. The inadequacy of displaying situations of verbal communication is typical for most human beings. Psychologists are no exception. In Radishchev's time, "conversation" would have been interpreted as "reading." If we accept the appropriate conventions, then in M. Fasmer we find: "... Conversation" conversation, teaching "... (M. Fasmer, M., 1986, p. 160). Reflective listening can be understood not as an interruption of the speaker, but as a reflection, i.e. displaying oneself in a state of listening, paying attention to oneself, analyzing one’s own perception.The solution to the question: does your model of what the speaker wants from you correspond to what you put in line with this model, apparently, can be considered reflective listening.

Types of conversation

Conversations vary depending on the persecuted psychological task. There are the following types:

v Therapeutic conversation

v Experimental conversation (to test experimental hypotheses)

v Autobiographical conversation

v Collection of subjective anamnesis (collection of information about the personality of the subject)

v Collecting an objective history (gathering information about acquaintances of the subject)

v Telephone conversation

Usually, a conversation between two people is like verbal ping-pong - the interlocutors take turns talking. However, things are different in counseling and psychotherapy, especially at the beginning of a conversation. Here, the verbal activity of the consultant should be minimal so that the client can focus on revealing his problems and difficulties. The consultant should not so much talk as listen. Listening means expressing genuine interest in another person.

There are two important aspects associated with this skill. First, each person feels the need to communicate with another person on matters important to him. Second, our tendency to support or agree with others depends on how much they listen to us. We can safely say that the quality of relationships between people to a large extent depends on the ability to listen and hear.

However, there are some circumstances that make it difficult to listen carefully. Often what the client says does not match the counselor's mindset and the client does not listen carefully. There is a widespread manner, often in counseling, when we do not so much listen to the interlocutor as we react to his messages, having formulated remarks, answers, questions, etc. in our thoughts in advance. It is only the appearance of hearing. One of the consequences of social learning is the avoidance of redundant information about the other person, which sometimes leads the counselor to resist telling the client about deeply personal matters, and the result of such resistance is, again, inattentive listening. Sometimes the events told by the client or the topics touched upon cause unpleasant feelings: anxiety, tension. The consultant, trying to avoid an unpleasant state, may not hear some important details. Listening difficulties are also caused by clients who constantly complain about their problems, especially somatic symptoms (for example, psychosomatic patients).

Listening is primarily feedback with the thoughts and feelings of the client, encourages the client to talk further about his life, about its difficulties and problems. If the counselor is attentive, the client "replaces the period at the end of the sentence with a comma, and what seemed to be the end of disclosure becomes a prelude to deeper revelation."

In any case, correct listening is active process. He, covers "all kinds of sensations plus intuition, reflection and empathy." This means great attention to detail, no matter how insignificant they may be. The listener needs to show interest and understanding, but not prevent the narrator from remaining in the flow of experiences; the consultant listening to the client must be liberated and observant so that the confessions heard generate an abundant associative flow. The resulting associations serve as certain "keys" to understanding the client's problems. But one should not cling to them, since some of the associations and ideas that have arisen are not confirmed later and are discarded. You do not need to share your associations with the client, because they can be completely wrong. Associations are rather a guide to further listening, asking questions, encouraging the client to "explore" new areas of the subjective world. Active listening of this kind helps to link individual fragments of the client's narrative, as a result of which the main task counseling - understanding the client.

Reflective and non-reflective listening

There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.

As a result of studying this chapter, students will:

know

• the essence and types of conversation as a method of scientific psychological research, its possibilities and limitations;
• correlation of methods of observation and conversation, advantages of conversation as a scientific method;
• the main stages and principles of organizing a conversation as a scientific method in psychology;

be able to

• develop a conversation program;
• determine the general strategy and tactics of conducting a conversation in order to collect new scientific data in psychology;

own

Skills of conducting and analyzing the minutes of the conversation.

General characteristics and types of conversation (interview) in psychological research

The conversation is one of the main scientific methods in social spiders in general and psychology in particular. AT general view conversation can be defined as a method of collecting data, as well as an influence method based on the use of verbal communication. The conversation is used in all spheres of activity of a psychologist without exception: in psychotherapy and psychocorrection, in psychodiagnostics, in research activities etc.

In this chapter, we will consider the conversation only as a tool for conducting psychological research, leaving out of the discussion the features of its use in psychotherapeutic and psycho-corrective work. An important difference here is that in psychotherapeutic work, one of the main goals of using conversation is to influence the interlocutor, resulting in a change in the latter. In research activities, the conversation is considered solely as a way of obtaining data that does not imply the implementation of the impact.

The method of conversation is very multifaceted and is implemented using a large number of different ways. This method is used to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data, depending on which it is used both in the study of single cases or small samples, and in the study of a large number of subjects. In addition, the conversation takes on different forms depending on how, who and when asks questions, how they receive answers to them, and what kind of questions are asked.

In general research methods, which can be considered as modifications of the conversation method, can be divided into two main types - interviews (from English, interview) and surveys (in the English literature, the term is used survey). This division is due to the type of data that are obtained as a result of their application, and the features of the design of the study.

Polls are usually used to conduct research on large samples of subjects and are aimed at collecting predominantly quantitative information. Surveys can be conducted using personal or telephone interviews, as well as in writing in the form of correspondence surveys or questionnaires (when the respondent needs to answer questions formulated in advance in writing, and direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent is not implied). When conducting surveys on large samples interpersonal interaction between the researcher and the respondent plays a different essential role, wherein great attention is given to the unification of the survey procedure for all respondents.

In psychology, preference is given to rather methods qualitative interviews, while surveys are the main tools of other social sciences (sociology, political science, etc.), although they are also used in socio-psychological research. Depending on the specifics of the problem under study, as well as the goals and objectives of the study, preference may be given to different types conversations.

The focus of this chapter is on a qualitative personal interview, and in the following we will use the terms "conversation" and "interview" here as synonyms. While the general ideas about interview design outlined here generally apply to conducting surveys, there are also some specifics that will not be discussed in this tutorial. For their

study, we refer you to the relevant literature, for example, to the works of M. V. Melnikova, G. M. Breslav, V. A. Yadov and others.

So, we will consider a conversation as a dialogue between people, allowing one person to find out psychological characteristics, opinions, autobiographical information, etc. another person based on the exchange of verbal messages.

Using the conversation method allows you to get great amount various information, which often cannot be obtained using other methods. Where observation and experiment can provide only indirect information about the problem of interest to the researcher, conversation can be the most direct way to obtain data: you simply ask the person about everything that interests you. The conversation is especially indispensable in cases where other methods cannot be applied in principle. For example, if you are interested in the content of dreams or subjective states of a person that are not reflected in his behavior, you cannot use any other research approach for this.

Conversation is the only method that allows you to directly obtain information about the thoughts, opinions, preferences and point of view of the respondent, as well as such phenomenological information as his idea of ​​himself and the reality he perceives. Conversation is convenient for conducting thought experiments when you invite the subject to simulate some situation and find out how he would act and feel in this case. So the conversation is universal method research with a very wide range of applications.

Given all the advantages and disadvantages of this method, it is necessary to clearly understand in which situations it should and should not be used, as well as in which cases the data obtained using it can be trusted and in which it cannot.

Due to its high non-specificity, the conversation method, like the observation method, can be used at different stages of the research process and in different qualities:

• can be used to conduct a primary study of any issue, which will help in general to understand how to approach its further study (introductory interviews);
• may be the main and only research method (when all the information collected in the study is based only on interviews);
• usually, along with observation, it is used as component for field research (when, for example, the characteristics of any social groups are studied);
• can also be used as a way to measure the dependent variable in experiments.

In addition, conversations are held at the first stage of constructing psychodiagnostic questionnaires. They are also used in post-experimental surveys to clarify the thoughts and feelings that arose in the subjects during the experiment, and to clarify possible guesses about the hypotheses being tested in the experiment.

The use of the conversation method, despite its universality, in some cases may be unjustified. For example, when it is expected to study a large number of subjects in a short time, or if more reliable data can be obtained using other methods (for example, observation). It is also not recommended to conduct an interview when there are suspicions that the information received from respondents may be intentionally or unintentionally distorted by them, and also if the subjects, by definition, cannot give a self-report on the questions of interest to the researcher (for example, when studying children, people with psychopathology or etc.).

Conducting an interview may at first glance seem very similar to a normal conversation, but in reality, an interview differs from a conversation in a number of important ways.

First of all, in terms of having a goal. In a normal conversation, the goal, as a rule, is not explicitly explicated, you can guess about it in the course of communication, sometimes conversations may not have a goal more specific than "communication." In the course of a conversation, a wide range of topics can be touched upon, while topics can be born and appear in the course of a conversation. Topics for conversation are usually not planned in advance and are not moderated in the course of communication. When conducting an interview, the goal is thought out and formulated in advance and explicitly announced to the respondent. In general, the purpose of the interview is to obtain information from the respondent. Topics on which information is of interest to the interviewer are also formulated in advance.

In an interview, unlike a conversation, roles are more clearly distributed between the participants. In a research interview, the interviewer takes more than active position, it is he who asks questions and manages the course of the conversation. The interviewee must answer questions, and can only ask them at the special invitation of the interviewer (for example, it is often suggested to do this at the end of the interview). In a normal conversation, both participants can ask questions, answer them, change topics of communication. When conducting a conversation, the respondent says much more than the interviewer, while in a normal conversation this is not clearly regulated.

In terms of how communication itself is built, a conversation is also very different from a simple conversation. So, usually in a simple conversation, very short answers are used, and the whole conversation is built on the basis of implicit knowledge known to all its participants, which are not pronounced explicitly. At the same time, in an interview, on the contrary, the answers should be as detailed as possible, and all implied information should be expressed explicitly so that it can really be understood and analyzed by other people.

In addition, there are usually no repetitions in the conversation: the topic discussed at some point is no longer mentioned further. In interviews, repetitions are used as special techniques for checking the reliability of answers, the sincerity of the respondent, as well as finding out additional information. Often the same question in content can be formulated in different ways and asked in different parts of the interview, and this can lead to the discovery of illogicality in the respondent's answers or to the clarification of new, previously unspoken information.

• Melnikova M.V. Poll method // experimental psychology: workshop / ed. V. S. Smirnova, T. V. Kornilova. Moscow: Aspect Press. 2002, pp. 331-343.
• Cm.: Breslav G. M. Fundamentals of psychological research.
• Cm.: Yadov V. L. Strategy sociological research. Description, explanation, understanding of social reality.

A conversation (interview) is "a special method of obtaining information based on verbal communication" (Psychology. Dictionary, 1990, p. 145). Revealing the specifics of the conversation as psychological tool, many authors point out that an interview differs from a regular conversation in that its content revolves around a rather narrow topic related to the experience of the respondent. A feature of the interview is also the specific distribution of roles and responsibilities between the interviewer and the respondent. This is due to the asymmetrical positions of the partners: the psychologist, as a rule, acts as the questioner and the listener, and his interlocutor - a child or an adult - as the responder.

Unlike other methods of psychological examination, the content of which is also the receipt and analysis of verbal messages (questionnaires, questionnaires), the specificity of the conversation lies in the fact that the researcher enters into direct interaction with the interviewee. This is an important advantage of this method, which allows the researcher to use not only the information directly contained in the answers to questions, but also many additional factors that form the living fabric of the interaction process to obtain the necessary data. First of all, these are non-verbal manifestations of the respondent, which help to clarify the information he reports, to reveal its true content, which may contradict the verbal message, to reveal his attitude to the situation of the survey and to the psychologist himself, etc.

All this makes it possible to better understand the interlocutor, to more accurately and deeply understand the problems and difficulties that he has in order to determine the best ways to solve them.

At the same time, the presence of direct contact during the conversation significantly complicates the situation of the survey for the researcher himself, since it imposes significantly higher requirements on his professional qualifications than, for example, correspondence surveys.

Professionally important qualities of a psychologist that determine the effectiveness of the conversation. Conducting a conversation is not just collecting some information from the respondent. This is a complex, multifaceted communicative process, the success of which is determined by many factors. The leading role among them belongs to personal attitudes psychologist and special conversation skills.

When conducting an interview, a psychologist is required to be able to integrate their professional knowledge about personality, motivation, mental health, as well as general erudition with an understanding of the interviewing process unfolding before him and with his direct participation (Murphy D., 1988). This means that a successful interview is based on the application of extensive knowledge, the actualization of certain attitudes, abilities and special skills that determine the effectiveness of the process of interaction between the psychologist and the respondent. Faced with the complexity of the demands placed on the interviewer, the novice psychologist should not jump to conclusions, since lasting positive results in interviewing are primarily the result of sufficient experience.

One of the necessary abilities required of a psychologist when conducting an interview is the ability to create a psychological climate conducive to the free flow of the communication process. In this case, the personality traits of the psychologist himself can play an important role: sociability, sensitivity, “focus on the other”, tact, etc.

The psychologist must have a positive attitude towards the respondent, full acceptance of his personality and avoid any judgment about the data reported by the respondent.

One of the leading abilities of the interviewer is empathy - the ability to empathize and sympathize with another person. At the same time, it is especially important when carrying out psychological conversation is the ability to see the world through the eyes of another person while maintaining professional objectivity.

The level of empathy of the interviewer depends on a number of factors. One of them is the degree of completeness and accuracy of knowledge about the respondent. The ability to empathize increases to the extent that the interviewer has his own experience of experiencing situations, similar situations respondent. Along with this, the ability of the interviewer to imagine such a situation, to construct it, is of great importance, even if there are no similar experiences in his own experience.

The ability to empathize as a general attitude that largely determines the success of the interviewing process is especially important when working with children. First of all, it is necessary to have a warm interest and readiness of an adult to get used to the feelings of children (Shvantsara J., 1978). And although "not every psychologist has the same talents of this kind," these attitudes can always be developed and strengthened in the process of practice, achieving a unique approach to children. Of great importance for this is the appeal to the experience of one's own experiences of childhood (Shvantsara I., 1978, p. 72).

In addition to the above-mentioned abilities for professional important qualities that determine the success of the conversation, include the following:

¦ mastering the techniques of reflective and active listening (Atvater I., 1984); + the ability to accurately perceive information: to listen and observe effectively, to adequately understand verbal and non-verbal signals, to distinguish between mixed and masked messages, to see the discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal information, to remember what was said without distortion;

¦ the ability to critically evaluate information, taking into account the quality of the respondent's answers, their consistency, the correspondence of the verbal and non-verbal context;

¦ the ability to correctly formulate and ask a question in time, to detect and correct questions incomprehensible to the respondent in a timely manner, to be flexible when formulating questions;

¦ the ability to see and take into account the factors that cause a defensive reaction of the respondent, preventing his involvement in the interaction process;

¦ stress resistance, the ability to withstand the receipt of large amounts of information for a long time;

¦ attentiveness to the level of fatigue and anxiety of the respondent. In addition, the interviewer's own expectations and attitudes should not affect the perception of the information communicated to him. The interpretation of the data should be done by the psychologist "for himself", it is not intended to be passed on to the client. It is also important that "work" with sharp emotional problems the client, relevant to him at the time of the interview, should precede the collection of factual material, especially if it is obvious that the presence of such problems reduces the client's ability to fully communicate information.