Needs for self-realization. Signs that you are on the right track

A. Maslow called self-expression the highest level of human needs. He believed that by satisfying their need for self-expression, everyone believes that they are doing something better than others. For one person, self-expression is writing a book, for another it is growing a garden, for another it is raising a child, etc.

In 1977, A. Maslow increased the number of levels in the pyramid to 7 and changed the list of needs (Fig. 3-3). He introduced such important needs for a developed society as cognitive (including self-knowledge, knowledge of risk factors for one’s health, etc.) and aesthetic (cleanliness, beauty and symmetry that surround a person, improve mood, increase the quality of life) and etc.

Of course, not every person feels the need to fulfill the needs of all 7 levels; this is influenced by education, culture, social status. So, one patient strives to learn everything in order to stay healthy, another wants to know everything about his disease, and a third is not interested in anything. For many people in our society, it is important to satisfy their aesthetic needs even in

Rice. 3-3. Hierarchy of human needs according to A. Maslow (1977)

conditions medical institution: the neatness of medical personnel, untidy bedding, cleanliness in the ward, dining room, good furniture, walls and floors can seriously affect the well-being of the patient and his loved ones.

At each level of the hierarchy, the patient may have one or more unmet needs.

The nurse, when drawing up a plan of care for the patient, must help him implement at least some of them.

CHAPTER 4 COMMUNICATION

On the classification of levels of communication;

About the elements effective communication;

On the characteristics of communication channels;

On the peculiarities of the formulation of open and closed questions;

About the techniques of effective verbal communication;

About ways of effective non-verbal communication;

Definition of the concept of “comfort zone”;

About the characteristics of a confident manner of communication.

Concepts and terms:

communication - 1) a series of dynamic events consisting in the transfer of information from the sender to the recipient; 2) a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people in order to carry out joint activities;

verbal communication - the process of transmitting information when communicating from one person to another using speech (oral or written);

nonverbal (wordless) communication - transmitting information using facial expressions, gestures, posture and posture without the use of speech;

visual - visual;

communication - exchange of information between two or more people, orally or in writing or through non-verbal techniques;

sender - person transmitting information;

message - information sent by the sender;

channel - method of sending a message: oral speech, non-speech components (facial expression, eyes, facial expressions, gesture, posture) or in writing;

recipient - the person receiving the message;

confirmation - a signal by which the recipient lets the sender know that the message has been received.

4.1. COMMUNICATION IN NURSING

The value of the psychotherapeutic effect possible with effective communication is well known; its results sometimes surpass all other methods of treatment. In this regard, communication is one of the important skills necessary for the quality work of a nurse. She needs communication skills to gain the trust of the patient, his family, and interact with doctors and other specialists involved in the treatment process. Many people know from their own experience how often people misunderstand each other. Effective communication skills can help eliminate this problem.

The core principles of nursing philosophy are respect for life, dignity and human rights. In order to understand and communicate with a person, respect, belief in his importance, value, uniqueness, kindness, strength, ability to manage his actions and the right to do so are required. Nursing is a responsible caring relationship.

4.2. COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES

Many people have experience of communicating ineffectively with other people. If they don’t understand you, it causes surprise: “I expressed myself quite clearly! Why don’t they understand me?”

One of the conditions for effective communication is the use of all its components (Figure 4-1).

Why do people sometimes have trouble understanding each other, even if all 5 elements of effective communication are used?

Firstly, The message itself may be unclear. For example, it is spoken in a voice that is too quiet, written in poor handwriting, contains unclear terms, etc.

Secondly, the sender may be using the wrong channel to transmit information. For example, a person with hearing problems is given a large amount of information through oral speech, and a person with vision problems is given written instructions written in too small a handwriting, etc.

Third, the recipient of the message does not confirm that the information was received and understood exactly as intended by the sender. For example, if the nurse asks, “Did you understand how to take the medication prescribed for you?” - the patient answers: “Yes, I understand,” this does not mean that he really understood everything correctly. In this case, in order to obtain confirmation that

Rice. 4-1. Elements of Effective Communication

the message is received and understood correctly by the patient, the nurse should ask several specific open-ended questions, for example: “How long after eating will you take the medicine?”; “What will you take with this medicine?” and so on. In this case, the patient would retell the nurse's message as he understood it.

Effective communication requires careful preparation, careful attention to the interlocutor, and mutual readiness to communicate. Often people with similar visual impairments, hearing impairments, physical activity impairments, etc., have various problems. The uniqueness of each person is revealed through communication.

4.3. METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

There are two ways of transmitting information: verbal (oral or written speech) and non-verbal (posture, gesture, facial expressions, etc.). In Fig. Figure 4-2 shows types of verbal and nonverbal communication. The choice of method for transmitting information depends on the content of the message and individual qualities recipient of the message. For example, for a blind person you can use oral speech, for a deaf person - both oral (many deaf people can read lips) and written (memo) speech. Often, several channels are used simultaneously to convey a message, for example, oral speech is accompanied by facial expressions and gestures.

Verbal communication involves two important elements: meaning and form of expression. The message must be clear and precise.

Asking the right questions can make communication more effective. Questions can be closed, which can be answered with a monosyllable “Yes” or “No,” and open (special), to which you can get a more or less detailed answer. Closed questions begin with the words: “Can you..?”, “Do you want..?”, “Do you need..?”, “Do you have..?” and so on.

Open questions begin with the words: “Tell me..?”, “What..?”, “Where..?”, “When..?”, “Why..?” and so on.

Asking the wrong question can make the message ineffective. Thus, when teaching a patient some necessary skills, to the question: “Did you understand me?”, you can get the answer: “Yes,” while the person simply does not want to admit that he did not understand everything. If you say: “I would like to make sure that you are right”

Rice. 4-2. Types of communication

understood correctly”, you can receive confirmation of the received message.

The effectiveness of a message can be improved if:

Attract the attention of the message recipient (if the person is busy with something and your message is not urgent, it is best to postpone the conversation with him for a while);

Speak slowly with good pronunciation, simple in short phrases;

Do not abuse special terminology;

Vary the speed and tempo of speech when communicating with a particular patient: if the nurse speaks too slowly, the patient may think that she is underestimating his ability to perceive information. If the nurse speaks too quickly, the patient may think she is in a hurry and may not want to listen further;

Choose the right time for communication: the person to whom the information is addressed must have an interest in the conversation. The best time for communication is when the patient himself asks questions about his condition, plan of care, nursing interventions, etc.;

Do not start a conversation immediately after the doctor informs you about an unfavorable outcome or an incurable disease;

Choose the right volume: speak so that you can be heard, but do not shout;

Humor promotes effective verbal communication, but it must be used with caution, especially when manipulating the patient's personal hygiene. When caring for him, nurses can tell funny incidents and use wordplay to make the patient smile. Some foreign researchers note that humor helps to calm the patient, relieve tension and pain, provides emotional support and softens the perception of the disease;

Make sure you are understood by asking the person open rather than closed questions. The question should be asked: “How will you prepare for the examination?”, but not “Did you understand how to prepare for the examination?” The patient can say “Yes” to the second (closed) question, even if he does not understand the message.

To make sure you are understood correctly and evaluate the other person's response, you need to be able to listen.

It is important for any person to be listened to when he says something. And he receives confirmation of this through both verbal and non-verbal channels of communication, as well as through verbal silence.

There are 3 elements of active listening: encouraging nonverbal components, encouraging verbal components, silence.

TO encouraging non-verbal components active listening include eye contact, posture indicating attention and willingness to listen, distance between interlocutors, head nods and facial expressions.

TO encouraging verbal components active listening refers to short exclamations that show the speaker that his words are of interest.

Silence can serve as a very important pause in a conversation: it allows the speaker to collect his thoughts difficult situation, find words that match the feelings, and think about your point of view. Silence can be awkward if the speaker is touching difficult topic, which he is not ready to discuss; You can meet your interlocutor halfway and change the topic.

“Listening means being open to the world and to the thoughts and feelings of others, whether openly expressed or implied. The ability to listen is not a passive perception of information, but an active, conscious effort to form participation in the interlocutor. This requires, in addition to simply understanding the meaning of the spoken words, concentration, lack of prejudice and an interested attitude towards what is being said. To be good listener, you need to completely focus your attention on the other person, which means suppressing your own prejudices, feelings of concern and other distracting internal and external factors» .

Written (verbal) communication is extremely important for a nurse. It can be effective if you consider the following recommendations:

Write neatly (if your handwriting is bad, write in block letters);

Choose the correct size and color of letters (for a person with low vision, write with a blue or black pen in block letters on white paper);

Make sure the note includes all necessary information;

Choose understandable and simple words;

Be sure to sign your message.

The effectiveness of written communication depends on many factors:

Does he see what is written?

Does he know the language in which the message is written?

Does he understand what is written?

In this regard, nursing staff should adhere to the following rules for effective written communication:

Be precise when telling the time (morning, evening);

Please be careful (check that you have included all the required information).

Nonverbal communication is carried out using symbols, gestures, facial expressions, postures, and touch. Researchers have found that 55% of information during a conversation is perceived by its participants through facial expressions, postures and gestures, 38% - through intonation and voice modulation. Consequently, only 7% of information is transmitted through oral speech. Moreover, it is believed that with the help of words (verbal channel) only information is transmitted, and the attitude towards the interlocutor is transmitted through the non-verbal channel.

As a rule, people are less able to consciously control the channel of nonverbal communication. A new science is studying it - kinesics. Kinesics researchers have proven that oral speech is easier to control than facial and body language, since nonverbal information is closely related to a person’s mental state. It is nonverbally that people express their mental state.

Sometimes the whole person's body is involved in transmitting the message. A person's gait is also a way of conveying a message and expressing oneself. For example, a person who enters a room with courage and confidence is demonstrating either his well-being or his anger. A slow entrant demonstrates restraint, fear, or anxiety. In these examples, in order to correctly understand the message, it is necessary Additional Information. It should be noted that the nurse often has to care for patients who are unable to use oral speech as a channel of communication, so the nurse needs non-verbal communication skills.

When you look at a person, you get a lot of information from his facial expression, facial expressions, and gestures. For example, during a conversation, a nurse sees that the patient has folded her arms and pressed them tightly to her chest. This may mean that she is very worried or upset. When receiving a message non-verbally, the healthcare worker must be sure that the patient has understood it correctly. In the situation being discussed, the nurse might ask, “Are you upset about something?”

A person's facial expressions are a very rich source of information about his emotional state. All people, regardless of the nationality and culture in which they grew up, almost equally understand the emotional state expressed by facial expressions on the face of the interlocutor. For example, when a person suffers, his mouth is closed, the corners of his mouth are lowered, his eyes are narrowed, dull, his eyebrows are shifted towards the bridge of his nose, outer corners the eyebrows are raised up, there are vertical folds on the forehead and bridge of the nose, the face is frozen.

Psychologists believe that a person’s face is a kind of center of reception and transmission social signals. It is well known that facial expressions give a person an individual appearance. As many people note, the most expressive thing about a face is the eyes. This is evidenced by many sayings and phrases: “read the soul in the eyes”, “sparkle with the eyes”, “devour with the gaze”, “hide the eyes”, etc. A person's gaze complements what is unsaid in words and gestures, and often it is the gaze that gives true meaning to the spoken phrase. An expressive look can convey the meaning of not only what is said, but also what is unsaid or unspoken. In some cases, you can say more with a look than with words. Consequently, eye-to-eye gaze is the most important channel of nonverbal communication. A glance initiates and maintains communication at all its stages; its significance especially increases with confidential “eye to eye” communication.

Visual contact indicates a willingness to communicate. With the help of the eyes, the most accurate signals about a person’s condition are transmitted, since the dilation or contraction of the pupils is not subject to conscious control. For example, if a person is excited, his pupils are four times larger than usual, and if he is angry, his pupils constrict.

The face retains a stable expression (sad, indifferent, angry, kind, etc.) for quite a long time. Moreover, the center that allows the interlocutor to determine the facial expression is the eyes. According to research, more than 50% of communication time interlocutors look into each other's eyes.

In sign language, hands play a big role, and not only when the speaker shows with his hands the shape of the object being discussed, indicates the direction or comments on an event. Hands also convey emotional state. Thus, anxiety can be manifested by continuous movement of the hands, trembling of the fingers, etc.

One important aspect of nonverbal communication is the nurse's appearance. If she is dressed professionally, the patient will trust her more. Naturally, in different countries depending on the level economic development, culture and religion, society has certain expectations and requirements both for nursing in general and for the appearance of a nurse. Even in the same country, each patient has his own, preconceived idea of ​​the nurse.

The nurse's facial expression significantly influences the effectiveness of communication with the patient. Patients usually look at the nurse's facial expression when she changes the dressing and answers questions about the severity and prognosis of the disease. In this regard, you should learn to control your facial expression, especially in cases that cause unpleasant emotions, in order to alleviate the patient’s feeling of fear.

The position of the patient's body and his movements indicate both his physical and emotional state.

Verbal and nonverbal communication can exist simultaneously. For example, a conversation (verbal communication) may be accompanied by smiling, gestures, crying, etc. (non-verbal information). It should be noted that the perception of a message largely depends on non-verbal information. The ability to “read” nonverbal messages will help the nurse understand the patient's true feelings, mood and problems. For example, if

the patient tells the nurse that everything is fine with him and nothing bothers him, but at the same time he does not look him in the eyes, sits with his hands tightly clenched into fists, the nurse should see the pose of distrust, fear, confusion and, of course, not leave this patient without help.

The communication process is largely influenced by a person’s previous experience and memory. Everyone participating in communication brings their own position and beliefs to the conversation.

Although both modes of communication (verbal and nonverbal) are complementary, many researchers believe that nonverbal signals are used more effectively, especially when it comes to conveying a person's emotional state. On the other hand, verbal communication is a common means of conveying factual information. The effectiveness of verbal communication largely depends on the ability to think, speak, listen, read and write.

Nonverbal methods - a hand touch on the shoulder, a pat on the back or a hug - allow the nurse to communicate to the person about affection, emotional support, approval, and empathy.

Nursing experts indicate that the skill of assessing a patient's condition is based on many nonverbal communication skills, in particular touch. Touch often really calms people when they are in great emotional distress. However, you need to be very careful about physical contact, as touching and close contact with strangers may not be acceptable in some cultures. The nurse should note that communication will be more successful if it occurs in a comfort zone (Figure 4-3).

Each person has their own size of comfort zones. Typically, a person does not think about his comfort zone or the amount of personal space around him until someone invades this zone. The person immediately feels uncomfortable and, if possible, takes a step back to restore a comfortable personal space around him. The discomfort that a person experiences if someone has entered his personal space can be associated with the concepts of intimacy, threat, and superiority. A person allows only people close to him and friends into his personal space. So, for most people the size of their personal zone is 0.45-1.2 m. As a rule,

Rice. 4-3. Comfort zones

Well, comfortable communication is possible at a distance of 1 m. Usually this distance is regulated by cultural norms. At the same time, when performing certain procedures, the nurse invades not only the personal, but also the intimate (16-45 cm) and super-intimate (0-15 cm) zone. The nurse, knowing and understanding the difficulties that the patient may experience, should be especially attentive and sensitive. For example, the size of a nurse's comfort zone allows her to stand close to other people, but they feel uncomfortable and move away because their comfort zone may be smaller. Conversely, a nurse can feel comfortable only if there is a large space around her, and the person thinks that he is unpleasant to her and that is why she is standing (sitting) so far from him.

It must be remembered that often medical workers become so accustomed to communicating with people in different situations, including when patients are undressed, that their perception of people's discomfort and confusion in such situations is blunted. In this regard, you need to be careful about everyone’s comfort zone and find a mutually acceptable distance for the nurse and the patient.

You need to be very attentive to the patient and/or his loved ones expressing feelings of discomfort associated with invading the comfort zone.

4.4. CONFIDENT COMMUNICATION

Regardless of which communication channel a person uses, he must strive to ensure that his intended message is conveyed as accurately as possible. This is facilitated by a confident manner of communication. If a message is conveyed firmly and confidently, the likelihood that the recipient of the message will agree with it increases. Some people confuse assertive communication with aggressiveness and rudeness, so you should use it selectively and always think about how it will be perceived.

In cases where a person behaves aggressively (not to be confused with confident behavior!) towards a nurse, use the following recommendations:

You should not take someone's aggressive behavior as a personal insult; most often people throw out their negative emotions on those who are seen more often, even if they are upset by someone else;

You need to breathe deeply: take a deep breath and count out loud until you calm down;

You can leave the room if you are afraid of saying or doing something unpleasant (of course, this can only be done if the patient is safe);

You can take a break by taking a short walk, drinking a sip of water;

You can tell what happened to someone you respect;

You should talk again with the person who showed disrespect for the sister: make it clear that the sister will still continue to fulfill her duties.

It is very important for medical personnel to keep the channels of communication open (watching, listening) even in cases where the message received causes a feeling of awkwardness.

Pause for a few seconds to calm down, stop thinking about your feelings and concentrate on the other person’s message;

Show interest in the interlocutor using facial expressions, gestures, touch; if a person feels the nurse’s interest, then this silent support can be more effective than any words;

Re-invite the person to the conversation by asking the question: “How are you feeling?”, “Are you sure that it’s better for you to be alone now?” Sometimes you can repeat the interlocutor’s message in your own words: “Do you really miss your family?”;

Just listen to your interlocutor, because sometimes this is the only thing a person needs. If the nurse believes that the patient needs answers to questions and she is unable to do so, someone should be found to answer the questions;

Talk about your experiences, about misunderstandings that have arisen with another person who enjoys the trust of the nurse.

4.5. COMMUNICATION IS AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF NURSING

The nursing practice that has developed in Russia for many decades has been predominantly associated with the performance of certain procedures that do not require the nurse to communicate. The nursing reform, which involves expanding the functions of nursing staff, makes the ability to communicate effectively a necessary condition for successful professional activity, since information about the patient’s problems, as well as the assessment of its results, require an active discussion of all issues with the patient. In particular, this applies to counseling patients (including parents of small children and relatives of elderly patients) on issues related to preserving (maintaining) health.

The person should be willing to talk about their health problems to the nurse, who should be able to listen and understand.

CHAPTER 5 NURSING TRAINING

After reading this chapter, you will learn:

About the scope of patient education;

About the conditions for the effectiveness of training;

On ways to assess the initial level of knowledge;

On methods of planning and implementing a training plan;

On methods for assessing learning outcomes.

Concepts and terms:

learning ability - individual indicators of the speed and quality of a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities in the learning process;

daily activities - activities performed by the patient during a normal day: eating, dressing, bathing, brushing teeth, grooming, etc.;

fields of study - areas in which the learning process occurs: cognitive, emotional and psychomotor;

The purpose of training - a statement of what a person intends to do to achieve a certain result. The goal must correspond to the person’s capabilities and not contradict his internal values.

5.1. TRAINING IS ONE OF THE FUNCTIONS OF NURSING

Training in nursing patients and/or their loved ones - a continuous process that often occurs informally, during conversations or when observing certain actions of another person. Every patient has the right to receive information about his illness or injury, state of health, and prognosis of the disease. Nurses, by teaching people of different ages, knowing the risk factors for diseases for each age period, help people learn how to change their behavior in order to maintain their own health, the health of their children and loved ones, or maintain it at the highest possible level.

An important function of nursing staff is to educate patients and their family members on issues related to their health. In some cases, this is training in specific self-care skills or caring for a child or adult, in others - preparation for a particular study, training in how to medicines(for example, insulin administration technique), thirdly, rational (dietary) nutrition, adequate physical activity, etc. By teaching patients, the nurse helps them adapt to their condition in order to maintain the most comfortable standard of living possible for them, or explains how they can make lifestyle changes to reduce or eliminate the influence of risk factors for diseases.

Training can take place in a formal setting (in medical institution or at the patient’s home), when the nurse teaches the patient new techniques for performing everyday activities (washing, walking, etc.), or informally, when the nurse, while performing her daily duties, talks with the person about problems that concern him (for example, how to protect yourself from HIV infection, how to protect your child from injury), providing information necessary for compliance healthy image life.

In some cases, the nurse helps the patient consolidate the skills he learned from another specialist (for example, a set of physical therapy exercises for the limbs or breathing exercises).

5.2. AREAS OF TRAINING

Learning occurs in three areas.

Cognitive sphere- a person learns and understands new facts, analyzes information, distinguishing important information from irrelevant information. For example, a person learns about the risk factors for diseases of people of his age, or about food components that contain elements necessary for a balanced diet, or about the danger to which he exposes himself due to improper behavior.

Emotional (sensual) sphere- a person, having received information, changes his behavior, expressing this with feelings, thoughts, opinions and assessment of some factors; the person actively listens and responds to new information, both verbally and nonverbally. For example, a person reduces the number of cigarettes smoked, alcohol consumption, or eats the amount of grain products, protein, etc. required for his age, or stops wearing shoes that pose a danger to him when walking, wears a seat belt in a car, transports a child in the car only in the back seat, etc.

Psychomotor sphere- a person masters skills through mental and muscular activity; learning new types of movement (for example, walking with a cane); confidently performs the necessary actions; psychologically, physically and emotionally prepared to perform activities associated with daily activities.

5.3. CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE TRAINING

The effectiveness of teaching the patient and/or his relatives, i.e. what they learn and how they do it is determined by many factors.

One of the factors is background knowledge, already available to the patient. For example, if a person who needs to change their usual diet and physical activity because of their illness already has an understanding of the new diet and activity regimen, their learning will be more successful. At the same time, if the information he has does not match the new information that the nurse tells him, the training may be less effective.

The next factor on which the effectiveness of training also depends is opinion or person's attitude who needs to know and subsequently change. For example, if a man believes that cooking is exclusively a woman's job, he will have difficulty learning and accepting information related to diet planning.

Past experience person also affects the assimilation of new information. For example, if an overweight woman has already tried to lose weight several times, it will be difficult for her to change her behavior again to try to achieve success. However, if these attempts were successful and she felt more energetic, it is much easier to teach her to eat right and do adequate physical activity.

Education for patients and their families is effective under the following conditions:

Availability clear goal and motivation to acquire knowledge;

The sister’s friendly attitude towards students (patients and members of their families);

Creating an associative connection between new information and their past experience and knowledge;

Mandatory practical testing of acquired knowledge.

Students understand and remember information better if the nurse:

Uses effective communication techniques;

Listens to everything that is said to her or asked about;

Treats them patiently;

Praises for success in learning;

Takes a break if they don't feel well or are upset about something.

For training to be effective, three factors should be taken into account: desire and readiness to learn; ability to learn; environment.

Desire and readiness to learn depend, firstly, on cognitive abilities student, allowing him to concentrate and understand new material, secondly, from attention. If a person is unable to concentrate, then training should be postponed or cancelled. Anxiety, pain, fatigue, hunger, thirst, drowsiness - all this interferes with the learning process and requires

stra of special skills. When planning training, the nurse should assess the patient's desire and readiness for training.

Learning ability depends on the stage and level of human development (child, adult, elderly, etc.). Before starting training, the nurse must assess the level of development of a person's cognitive abilities and choose the appropriate teaching method. Important criteria for assessing learning ability are a person’s age, his physical state(weakness, exhaustion, etc.), in which learning may be impossible or ineffective, disposition to communicate, range of movements, degree of mobility, etc.

Environment is also one of important conditions successful learning. When starting training, the nurse must determine the optimal number of students (group training is not always effective), assess their need for privacy, air temperature, lighting, noise, ventilation, and the presence of furniture.

5.4. LEARNING PROCESS

Teaching the patient and/or his loved ones is effective if the nurse knows and understands the significance of each stage of training ( educational process) (Fig. 5-1). These steps are as follows:

Assessment of the initial level of knowledge and skills of the patient and/or his relatives;

Defining goals, planning content, methods and scope of training;

Implementation of the training plan;

Assessment of learning outcomes.

Made an extremely important contribution to the understanding of what underlies people's desire to work. Leaders of different ranks began to realize that people's motivation is determined by a wide range of their needs. From the hierarchical nature of the motivational impact of needs for a manager, very specific practical conclusions follow.

Physiological needs.

This group of needs includes the needs for food, water, air, shelter, etc., i.e. those needs that a person must satisfy in order to survive, in order to maintain the body in a vital state. These needs are largely related to the maintenance of physiological processes and are generated by human physiology.

People who work mainly because of the need to satisfy the needs of this group have little interest in the content of the work; they concentrate their attention on payment, as well as on working conditions, convenience in the workplace, the ability to avoid fatigue, etc. To manage such people, it is necessary that the minimum wage ensures survival and that the working conditions do not burden existence too much.

Security needs.

The needs of this group are associated with the desire and desire of people to be in a stable and safe state, protecting them from fear, pain, illness and other suffering that life can bring to a person. People experiencing needs of this kind tend to avoid exciting situations, love order, clear rules, clear structures. They evaluate their work, first of all, from the point of view of ensuring their stable existence in the future. For a person influenced by these needs, job guarantees, pensions, and guarantees of medical care are important.

People experiencing these needs seek to insure themselves directly and figuratively from the possibility of adverse events and changes, creating insurance potential, in particular, through training and education. People with a heightened need for security tend to avoid risk and internally resist change and transformation. To manage these kinds of people, it is necessary to create a clear and reliable social insurance system, apply clear and fair rules for regulating their activities, pay above the subsistence level for work, and not involve them in making risky decisions and taking actions related to risk and change.

Needs for belonging and involvement (social needs).

A person strives to participate in joint actions, he wants friendship, love, to be a member of some associations of people, to participate in public events, etc. All these aspirations make up the group of needs of belonging and involvement. If this need is the leading one for a person, he looks at his work, firstly, as belonging to a team and, secondly, as an opportunity to establish good and friendly relations with his colleagues.

In relation to such employees, management should take the form of a friendly partnership; for such people it is necessary to create conditions for communication at work. Good result provide a group form of work organization, group events that go beyond work, as well as a reminder to employees that they are valued by their colleagues at work.

Needs for recognition and self-affirmation, for respect.

This group of needs reflects the desire of people to be competent, strong, capable, self-confident, as well as the desire of people to be recognized as such by others and respected for this. People with this need strongly influencing them strive for a leadership position or a position of recognized authority in solving problems. When managing these people, you must use various shapes expressions of recognition of their merits. For this purpose, the assignment of titles and titles, press coverage of their actions, mention by management in public speeches of their merits, presentation of various kinds of honorary awards, etc. can be useful.

Needs of self-expression, self-realization.

This group combines needs, expressed in a person’s desire for the fullest use of his knowledge, abilities, skills and abilities. These needs, to a much greater extent than the needs of other groups, are individual in nature. These are human needs for creativity in the broad sense of the word. People with this need are open to the perception of themselves and the environment, creative and independent. When managing people of this kind, one must strive to give them original tasks that allow them to put their abilities into practice, provide greater freedom in choosing the means of solving problems, and involve them in work that requires ingenuity and creativity.

Maslow's theory of hierarchical construction of needs does not answer the question of what the nature of certain needs is. The main task of this theory seems to be the desire to show how certain needs can influence a person’s motivation for activity and how, knowing about the certain dynamics of the action of needs on a person’s motivation, influence a person, providing him with the opportunity to satisfy his needs op - in a limited way.

Maslow's concept had a great influence on the development of theory and practice modern management. However, life has shown that the concept has a number of very vulnerable points.

Firstly, needs manifest themselves differently depending on many situational factors (content of work, position in the organization, age, gender, etc.).

Secondly, There is not necessarily a strict following” of one group of needs after another, as is presented in Maslow’s “pyramid”.

Third, satisfying the upper group of needs does not necessarily lead to a weakening of their impact on motivation. Maslow believed that the exception to this rule is the need for self-expression, which may not weaken, but even strengthen its effect on motivation as it is satisfied. Practice shows that the need for recognition and self-expression can also have an enhancing effect on motivation in the process of satisfaction.

Clayton Alderfer (1969, 1972) proposed a theory of work motivation based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, but with some important modifications. The starting point of this theory is the hypothesis of the existence of three groups of needs, listed in order from most to least specific (basic). These needs are for existence (“C”), connections or relationships with other people (“B”) and growth (“P”), which is why some domestic authors designate it as Alderfer's SVR theory.

In foreign literature, this theory is denoted by the abbreviation ERG, where E (existence) - needs for existence; R (relatedness) - needs for relationships with other people; G (growth) - growth needs.

Existence needs, which include fundamental physiological needs, as well as the need for personal safety;

Relatedness needs, including the needs of collective security, communication, belonging to a group and involvement in a cause, social recognition;

Growth needs, that is, the need for official recognition, self-affirmation and self-improvement.

Thus, although Alderfer’s needs are also located hierarchically, there is a significant difference between this theory and Maslow’s theory: Alderfer believed that movement can go in two directions (up if the need of the lower level is satisfied, and down if the need of the higher level is not satisfied .). The process of moving up the levels is the process of satisfying needs, and the process of moving down is the process of frustration, that is, defeat in the desire to satisfy the need.

The presence of two directions of movement in satisfying needs opens up additional opportunities for motivating people in the organization. If, for example, an organization does not have sufficient resources to satisfy a person's need for growth, he may switch with increased interest to the need for connection. In this case, the organization will be able to provide him with opportunities to satisfy this particular need, thereby increasing the potential for motivating a particular employee.

Consequently, Alderfer's theory opens up new options for managers to find effective forms of motivation that correlate with lower level needs if there are no conditions to satisfy higher level needs.

In the literature on work psychology and industrial-organizational psychology one can still find reports on scientific research based on this theory. However, it suffered the same fate as other theories based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs - it is too difficult to find data that could support any of them.

Designed by Frederick Herzberg (Herzberg, 1966) two-factor (motivational - hygienic) theory of motivation also goes back to Maslow's hierarchical model.

It is usually believed that a person’s satisfaction with his actions, his condition, environment and dissatisfaction with all this are two poles, opposites, between which a person’s state and mood can lie. Depending on how the influence is carried out, the motivation of a person, his mood can move from one state to another, a person can become either more satisfied or more dissatisfied. But it turns out that not everything looks clear.

At the turn of the 50-60s. Frederick Herzberg, together with a number of his colleagues, conducted a study to determine which factors have a motivating and demotivating effect on human behavior, causing his satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The conclusion he drew from these studies turned out to be extremely original.

Herzberg's theory was created on the basis of data from inter-views taken at different work places, in different -fe-sio-nal groups and in different countries. Respondents were asked to describe situations in which they felt complete satisfaction or, on the contrary, , dissatisfaction with your work. Studying the so-b-ran-ny ma-te-ri-al, Herz-berg came to the conclusion that dis-satisfaction and satisfaction with creativity -the nature of the work is caused by different personal factors.

Job dissatisfaction is influenced by:

Management method and style;

Organizational policy and administration;

Working conditions;

Interpersonal relationships in the workplace;

Earnings;

Uncertainty about job stability;

The influence of work on personal life.

Satisfaction with work is influenced by:

Dos-ti-zhe-niya (kva-li-fi-ka-tsiya) and recognition of us-pe-ha;

Work like that (in-te-res to work and work);

Responsibility;

Career advancement;

Opportunity for professional growth.

Herzberg called the first group of factors hygiene factors (hygienic factors). Here the term “hygiene” is used in its medical significance- hygiene as a warning, prevention of disease, rather than treating it. These factors are related to the self-expression of the individual, his internal needs, as well as environment, in which the work itself is carried out. Hygiene factors in themselves do not cause satisfaction, but their deterioration gives rise to dissatisfaction with work.

When hygiene factors are improved, dissatisfaction is not felt, but when such an improvement is perceived by employees as natural, taken for granted, then there is no satisfaction. Hygienic factors include: safety in the workplace, working conditions (noise, lighting, comfort), relationships with colleagues, superiors and subordinates, moral climate in the organization, status, rules, routine and working hours, quality of control by management, etc.

The second group of factors consists of motivators that directly cause job satisfaction, a high level of motivation and work achievements and which are closely related to the nature and essence of the work itself. Motivators include: achieving goals, recognition, content of work, opportunities for personal self-realization, work itself, responsibility and other factors.

According to Herzberg, only those conditions that allow people to satisfy higher-level needs - the need for recognition and self-actualization - can enhance work motivation. To prevent employees from leaving the organization, it must provide them with the opportunity to satisfy the needs of lower levels through work, but the ability to satisfy these needs does not affect the motivation of work. One of the most paradoxical conclusions that was drawn by Herzberg from analyzes of health factors was the conclusion that wage is not a motivating factor.

According to the author of the theory, 69% of the reasons that determine staff disappointment in their work belong to the group of hygiene factors, while 81% of the conditions affecting job satisfaction are directly related to the content of workers’ work. Additionally, Herzberg suggested a strong correlation between job satisfaction and job performance.

Based on the concept of two factors that he developed, Herzberg concluded that if employees have a feeling of dissatisfaction, the manager must pay primary attention to those factors that cause dissatisfaction and do everything to eliminate this dissatisfaction. Once a state of no dissatisfaction has been achieved, trying to motivate employees using health factors is practically futile. Therefore, after this, the manager must concentrate on activating motivating factors and try to achieve high results labor through the mechanism for employees to achieve a state of satisfaction.

Herzberg's theory stimulated a significant amount of research into work motivation within a few years of its appearance. The theory itself has not stood up particularly well to rigorous empirical testing, but the basic dichotomy of motivating and hygiene factors underlies what is currently most significant theoretical position about the psychological, or motivational, approach to work planning.

McClelland's theory of acquired needs.

There is a hypothesis that the need for achievement arises through learning and develops (or does not develop) in childhood. According to David McClelland's theory (McClelland, 1961), people who have a need for achievement work harder than people who do not have such a need. A unique feature of the theory of work motivation, based on the assessment of the need for achievement, is the hypothesis that in people with a low level of this need it can be developed through training. It can also develop in the context of work, where people directly experience the benefits associated with achievement.

Need for achievement theory has been more successful than need theories based on Maslow's hypothesis. There appears to be a relationship between the level of need for achievement and certain types of work behavior, and research in this area continues. This theory is distinguished by the idea that people are somewhat selective in their activities based on their beliefs about the likelihood of success in any given situation, and by the assumption that the level of need for achievement can be increased through training.

Without denying the significance of previous theories and their conclusions about the importance of biological and other “basic” needs in motivating workers, the author believed that the issue of their satisfaction has already been resolved (especially in economically developed countries) and tried to identify the most important among the secondary needs that are actualized under the condition sufficient material security. According to him, the needs of higher levels are acquired under the influence life circumstances, experience and training, and therefore this theory is called the theory of acquired needs.

McClelland believed that any organization provides the employee with three higher-level needs:

The need for involvement (complicity) - desire for friendly relations with others, communication, working with people;

Need for success (achievement) - the desire to independently set and achieve goals more effectively than before;

Need for power - Some people want to rule for the sake of power, others - for the sake of achieving goals.

The need for involvement (complicity).

People with a high need for belonging try to establish and maintain good relationships, seek approval and support from others, and are concerned about how others think of them. For them, the fact that someone needs them, that their friends and colleagues are not indifferent to them and their actions is very important.

Individuals with a high need for participation prefer to occupy positions in the organization and perform such work that allow them to be in active interaction with people, both with their colleagues and with clients. To successfully organize the work of such team members, it is necessary to create conditions that allow them to regularly receive information about the reactions of others to their actions, as well as providing them with the opportunity to actively interact with a fairly wide range of people.

The management of the organization must regularly assess the level of this need among employees subordinate to them in order to correctly and timely make adjustments to the organization of their work, taking into account possible changes in the level of need for complicity in individual employees. Naturally, an analysis of the level of need for participation should also be assessed when admitting a person to the organization.

The need for success (achievement).

People with a high level of need for achievement prefer to set their own goals. However, they usually choose moderately challenging goals and objectives based on what they can achieve and what they can do. People with a strong need for achievement tend to make moderately risky decisions and expect immediate feedback from the actions they take and decisions made. They enjoy making decisions and being responsible for solving a problem, they are obsessed with the tasks they solve, and easily take personal responsibility.

Based on the above characteristics, we can say that members of the organization who have a high need for achievement are ready to take on work that carries elements of challenge, which allows them to set goals independently. However, at the same time, it is very difficult for them to engage in work that does not have a clear and tangible result that occurs quickly enough.

They can be enthusiastic and constantly engaged in solving a problem, but at the same time they constantly need to get results. It is important to note that the quality of the result, as well as the quality of their work, is not necessarily the highest. People with this need work hard and willingly, but do not really like to share their work with others. They are much less satisfied with the result obtained together than if they themselves had obtained this result alone.

McClelland, based on research, came to the conclusion that this need can be attributed not only to the characteristics individuals, but also to the characteristics of individual societies. Those societies where the need for achievement is high usually have a well-developed economy. Conversely, in societies characterized by a low need for achievement, the economy develops at a low rate or does not develop at all.

It is believed that the presence of a high need for achievement among employees affects their activity and performance. Therefore, it is useful to assess the level of need for achievement among members of the organization during their promotion, as well as among applicants for entry into the organization. Assessing the level of achievement needs can also be used to bring the nature and content of work into line with the achievement needs of employees.

In order to regulate the level of this need, it is important to train members of the organization and organize work accordingly. In particular, it is advisable to include regular feedback into your work, analyze examples successful achievement goals. Also, due to the fact that people with a high need for achievement have increased self-esteem and, accordingly, are not inclined to set difficult goals, it is necessary to try to correct their self-esteem.

The desire to achieve makes people successful in solving the problems they face. A successful entrepreneur must have a high level of need for achievement. However, it is often people with a high need for achievement that do not reach the highest levels in the management hierarchy, since at the upper management levels it is necessary to make more risky decisions and put more high goals than people with a high level of need for achievement are willing to do.

Therefore, it can be said quite unequivocally that for people engaged in individual entrepreneurial activities, it is desirable to have a high need for achievement. If a person works in a large organization, a high need for achievement can create many problems for both him and the colleagues around him.

The need to dominate.

This need, like the previous two, is acquired, develops on the basis of learning, life experience and consists in the fact that a person strives to control the resources and processes occurring in his environment. The main focus of this need is the desire to control people’s actions, influence their behavior, and take responsibility for the actions and behavior of other people. The need for power has two poles: the desire to have as much power as possible, to control everything and everyone and, in contrast to this, the desire to completely renounce any claims to power, the desire to completely avoid such situations and actions that are associated with the need to perform power functions.

Individuals with high power motivation can be divided into two, in principle mutually exclusive, groups. First the group consists of those who strive for power for the sake of power. First of all, they are attracted by the very opportunity to command others. The interests of the organization often fade into the background for them and even lose meaning, since they concentrate primary attention on their leadership position in the organization, on their ability to rule, on their strength in the organization.

Co. second The group includes those individuals who strive to gain power in order to achieve solutions to group problems. These people satisfy their need for power by defining goals, setting tasks for the team and participating in the process of achieving goals.

It is very important to note that they look for ways to motivate people to achieve these goals and work together with the team to both define goals and achieve them. That is, the need for power for these people is not a desire for imperious self-affirmation for the sake of satisfying their vanity, but a desire to perform responsible leadership work related to solving organizational problems, which, by the way, is also a desire for imperious self-affirmation.

McClelland believes that of the three needs considered in his concept (achievement, participation and dominance) for the success of a manager highest value has a developed need for power of the second type. Therefore, it is extremely important that the work of a manager, on the one hand, enables managers to satisfy this need, and on the other hand, contributes to the development of this need.

These needs do not exclude each other, are not arranged hierarchically (as in previous theories), but mutually influence each other. Based on them, as a rule, the fourth need arises - avoiding troubles , that is, obstacles or opposition to the realization of the three above-mentioned needs, for example, situations that do not allow success, that can deprive a person of power or group recognition.

The manifestation of the influence of needs on human behavior strongly depends on their mutual influence. So, for example, if a person is in a leadership position and has a high need for power, then for the successful implementation of management activities in accordance with the desire to satisfy this need, it is desirable that the need for complicity be relatively weakly expressed.

A combination of a strong need for achievement and a strong need for power can also lead to a negative, from the point of view of the manager’s performance of his work, influence on its result, since the first need will always orient power towards achieving the personal interests of the manager. Apparently, it is impossible to draw unambiguously hard conclusions about the direction in which the three needs under consideration influence each other. However, it is absolutely obvious that it is necessary to take into account their mutual influence when analyzing a person’s motivation, when analyzing behavior and developing methods for managing a person.

Life has shown the incorrectness of a number of statements made by the authors of substantive theories of motivation.

Needs manifest themselves differently depending on many situational factors:

It is not necessary to strictly follow one need after another;

Satisfaction of upper needs does not always lead to a weakening of their interaction on motivation;

These theories focus on the analysis of the factors underlying motivation, and at the same time practically do not pay attention to the analysis of the process of motivation, etc.

However, this group of motivation theories also has certain prospects. Conceptual and empirical advances in personality research have led to personality tests, which for several years were almost not used for screening and selection for employment, have again become one of the main topics of industrial-organizational psychological research. If in some situations these tests are valid selection instruments, then, therefore, in these situations personal characteristics are somehow related to the performance of the job. Research on this topic is being conducted in several directions and indicates the existence of some interesting possibilities.

Firstly, when using in various ways assessments and across different professions, a positive correlation was found between certain traits such as conscientiousness, personal discipline and job performance. Second, researchers have found that certain individual differences personality variables (such as high self-awareness) are associated with higher levels of self-regulation, which in turn promotes task completion. Third, the degree to which people set difficult goals may be related to certain personality traits.

It is still too early to talk about the emergence of a real personality theory of motivation, but from the literature on this topic it is clear that personality analysis can open up new opportunities for psychology and management to predict differences in the efforts that people put into effective work behavior. But many questions still need to be answered. The main one is the question of what is the mechanism of influence of personality on motivation. Could it be that certain personality characteristics make people work hard and drive behavior in much the same way as needs?

Abraham Maslow recognized that people have many different needs, but also believed that these needs can be divided into five main categories:

Physiological needs that are necessary for survival - the needs for food, water, shelter, rest and sexual needs.

Needs for security and confidence in the future- need for protection from physical and psychological dangers from the outside world and confidence that physiological needs will be satisfied in the future. A manifestation of the need for security in the future is the purchase of an insurance policy or the search for a secure job with good prospects for retirement.

Social needs, sometimes called affiliation needs - a feeling of belonging to something or someone, a feeling of being accepted by others, feelings of social interaction, affection and support.

Esteem needs- needs for self-esteem, personal achievements, competence, respect from others, recognition.

Self-expression needs- the need to realize one’s potential and grow as an individual.

Maslow's system of needs is hierarchical, that is, the needs of lower levels require satisfaction and, therefore, influence human behavior before the needs of higher levels begin to affect motivation. At any given moment in time, a person will strive to satisfy the need that is more important or strong for him. Before the need next level becomes the most powerful determining factor in human behavior, a lower level need must be satisfied.

Since with the development of a person as an individual his potential capabilities expand, the need for self-expression can never be fully satisfied. Therefore, the process of motivating behavior through needs is endless.

For example, a person experiencing hunger will first seek to find food and only after eating will try to build a shelter. Living in comfort and security, a person will first be motivated to activity by the need for social contacts, and then will begin to actively strive for respect from others. Only after a person feels inner satisfaction and respect from others will his most important needs begin to grow in accordance with his potential. But if the situation changes radically, then the most important needs can change dramatically.

In order for the next, higher level of the hierarchy of needs to begin to influence human behavior, it is not necessary to satisfy the need of the lower level completely. Thus, hierarchical levels are not discrete steps. For example, people usually begin to seek their place in a certain community long before their security needs are met or their physiological needs are fully satisfied. This thesis can be perfectly illustrated by the example of the great importance that rituals and social communication for the primitive cultures of the Amazon jungle and parts of Africa, although hunger and danger are always present there.

Application Maslow's theories

In order to motivate a particular person, a leader must enable him to satisfy his most important needs through a course of action that contributes to the achievement of the goals of the entire organization. Not so long ago, managers could motivate subordinates almost exclusively only with economic incentives, since people's behavior was determined mainly by their needs at lower levels. Today, even people at the lowest levels of an organization's hierarchy are relatively high up in Maslow's hierarchy.

A leader must carefully observe his subordinates to decide what active needs drive them. Since these needs change over time, you cannot expect that motivation that works once will work effectively all the time.

Managers need to know what an employee's preferences are in the reward system, and what makes some of your subordinates refuse to work with others. Different people like different things, and if a leader wants to effectively motivate his subordinates, he must be sensitive to their individual needs.

The main criticism of Maslow's theory was that it failed to take into account individual differences in people.

For example, many people in modern Russia were so shocked by the “default” of 1998 that after that (although they managed to “get back on their feet”) their dominant need for security remains.

Methods for satisfying higher level needs

Social needs

Give employees jobs that allow them to communicate

Create a team spirit in the workplace

Hold periodic meetings with subordinates

Do not try to destroy informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization.

Create conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside its framework

Esteem needs

Offer your subordinates more meaningful work

Provide them with positive feedback on the results achieved

Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates

Involve subordinates in setting goals and making decisions

Delegate to subordinates additional rights and powers

Promote subordinates up the career ladder

Provide training and retraining that improves competency

Self-expression needs

Provide subordinates with training and development opportunities that enable them to reach their full potential.

Give your subordinates complex and important work that requires their full commitment

Encourage and develop creativity in subordinates Herzberg's two-factor theory

Herzberg showed that people’s activities are influenced by 2 groups of factors, which he called hygienic and motivating.

Group of factors		Impact on people's activities
Hygienic (related to working conditions)	earnings, working conditions, relationships with other employees, administration activities	Even with complete satisfaction, they do not motivate to improve work efficiency
Motivating (related to the content of the work, with assessment of results by management)	feeling of success, career advancement, recognition from others, responsibility	Motivate to increase productivity, efficiency, quality of work

Hygiene factors do not motivate workers, but simply prevent the development of a feeling of job dissatisfaction.

Application of Herzberg's theory

In order to achieve motivation, the manager must ensure the presence of not only hygiene, but also motivating factors. Many organizations have attempted to implement these theoretical insights through job enrichment programs.

During the implementation of the labor “enrichment” program, the work is restructured and expanded so as to bring more satisfaction and rewards to its immediate performer. “Enrichment” of work is aimed at structuring work activity in such a way as to make the performer feel the complexity and significance of the task entrusted to him, independence in choosing decisions, the absence of monotony and routine operations, responsibility for the given task, the feeling that the person is performing separate and completely independent work . Among the several hundred companies that use job enrichment programs to eliminate the negative effects of fatigue and the associated decline in productivity are such large companies as American Airlines and Texas Instruments. Although the concept of work enrichment has been used very successfully in many situations, it is not suitable for motivating all people.

In order to use Herzberg's theory effectively, it is necessary to create a list of hygiene and, especially, motivating factors and give employees the opportunity to determine and indicate what they prefer.

The same factor can cause job satisfaction in one person and dissatisfaction in another, and vice versa. Thus, both hygiene and motivating factors can be a source of motivation, and this depends on the needs of specific people. Since different people have different needs, different factors will motivate different people.

For example, a person may love his job because he considers his colleagues to be friends and, by communicating with them, he satisfies his social needs. However, such a person may consider chatting with colleagues more important matter than doing the work assigned to him. Thus, although job satisfaction is high, productivity may be low.

Due to the fact that social needs play a very important role, the introduction of such motivating factors as increasing responsibility for the assigned task may not have a motivating effect and will not lead to increased productivity. This will be exactly the case, especially if other workers perceive the increase in the worker’s productivity as a violation of unspoken production standards.

When the needs of the four lower levels are satisfied, a person focuses his attention on satisfying the need for self-realization. In trying to achieve this, people try to realize their full potential, increase their abilities and be the “best”. This need for self-expression is the highest of all human needs.

The fact that human needs can be arranged in a hierarchical order is important. Firstly, the needs of lower levels must be satisfied first, only after that can the needs of higher levels be addressed.

In addition, it is worth considering that the needs of lower levels form the foundation on which the needs of higher levels are built. Only if lower-level needs remain satisfied does a manager have a chance to succeed by motivating workers by satisfying higher-level needs.

The idea of ​​sufficiency is very important. A person will never experience the feeling of complete satisfaction of his needs. Most people want more more money, security, friends, respect and self-confidence, no matter how much they have already achieved. Thus, a person moves up the hierarchy not when his needs are fully satisfied, but when they are sufficiently satisfied.

When applying the hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow, a large role is given to intuition, which is best explanation her popularity. However, from the point of view of specific management actions, A. Maslow’s approach has a number of difficulties. First of all, most of us can be at several levels of the hierarchy of needs at the same time.

It is also extremely difficult to determine the level of needs, the satisfaction of which can motivate a person in currently. Part of the problem stems from the fact that it is very difficult to distinguish small, insignificant changes in needs that occur daily from larger, less frequent changes (shifts) in human needs. motivation management need

Difficulty also arises when measuring human needs. Most of us have great difficulty identifying our own needs and setting priorities. A manager who must create a motivational environment for many of his subordinates faces a daunting task.

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory.

Herzberg's theory was derived from a study involving two hundred engineers and accountants. They were all asked two questions: “Can you describe in detail a time when you feel exceptionally good at work?” and “Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally bad at work?”

Herzberg found two clearly distinguishable groups of needs in the responses. He called the first hygienic or supporting factors. This group included those factors or conditions in the absence of which employees did not receive job satisfaction. These hygiene factors include company and management policies, relationships with superiors, working conditions, wages, relationships with colleagues, personal life, status and safety.

These factors are only valuable if the employee also receives an additional reward upon completion of the job. Herzberg called the second group of factors motivators or satisfiers. These are working conditions under which a high level of employee motivation and job satisfaction is achieved. In the absence of these conditions, it is impossible to obtain either effective motivation or satisfaction. Motivators include goal achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, career advancement, and opportunities for personal growth.

The theory of motivation by L. Porter - E. Lawler.

The comprehensive process theory of motivation, known as the Porter-Lawler model, is built on the basic elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. Two researchers, Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler, developed a model that included five variables:

• - effort expended
• - perception
• - results
• - reward
• - level of satisfaction

The content of the Porter-Lawler model boils down to the following: in order to achieve certain results and receive a worthy reward, a person expends effort depending on his abilities, experience and qualifications. In this case, the amount of effort is determined by the value of the reward. A person’s awareness of his role in the labor process has a significant impact on the results. As in the theory of goal setting, rewards can be internal (a feeling of satisfaction about the work performed, a sense of competence and self-affirmation) and external (increase in pay, bonus, gratitude from the manager, promotion). The perception of reward determines the level of satisfaction, which in turn will influence a person's future behavior.

Porter and Lawler, based on an analysis of the proposed model, concluded that productive work leads to satisfaction. This conclusion is fundamentally different from the positions taken by representatives of early theories of human relations, who believed that satisfied workers produce better results.

The merit of Porter and Lawler is that their theory made a major contribution to the understanding of motivation.

Douglas McGregor's theory of motivation.

Douglas McGregor analyzed the activities of the performer in the workplace and revealed that the manager can control following parameters, defining the actions of the performer:

• - tasks that a subordinate receives;
• - quality of task execution;
• - time of receiving the task;
• - expected task completion time;
• - the means available to complete the task;
• - the team in which the subordinate works;
• - instructions received by a subordinate;
• - convincing the subordinate that the task is feasible;
• - convincing the subordinate of reward for successful work;
• - the amount of remuneration for the work performed;
• - the level of involvement of the subordinate in the range of work-related problems.

All these factors depend on the manager and, at the same time, to one degree or another influence the employee, determine the quality and intensity of his work. Douglas McGregor came to the conclusion that, based on these factors, it was possible to apply two different approaches to management, which he called “Theory X” and “Theory Y”.

“Theory Y” corresponds to a democratic management style and involves delegation of authority, improving relationships in the team, taking into account the corresponding motivation of performers and their psychological needs, enrichment of the content of the work.

Both theories have an equal right to exist, but, due to their polarity, are not found in their pure form in practice. As a rule, in real life There is a combination of different management styles.

These theories had a strong influence on the development of management theory in general. References to them today can be found in many practical manuals on enterprise personnel management and motivating subordinates.

McGregor's theories were developed in relation to an individual person. Further improvement of approaches to management was associated with the development of the organization as an open system, and the work of a person in a team was also considered. This led to the concept of a holistic approach to management, i.e. the need to take into account the entire range of production and social problems.

Motivation of personnel in organizations.

It would be advisable to consider ways to motivate work in organizations. They are combined into relatively independent areas: material incentives, improvement of labor organization, involvement of personnel in the management process and non-monetary incentives.

The first direction reflects the role of the motivational mechanism of remuneration in the system of increasing labor productivity. It includes as elements the improvement of the wage system, providing staff with the opportunity to participate in the property and profits of the enterprise.

Of course, the motivational mechanism of remuneration plays a large role, but a constant increase in the level of remuneration does not contribute to either maintaining labor activity at the proper level or increasing labor productivity. The use of this method can be useful for achieving short-term increases in labor productivity. Ultimately, a certain overlap or addiction to this type of influence occurs. Unilateral influence on workers only monetary methods cannot lead to a lasting increase in labor productivity.

Although labor in our country, unlike highly developed countries, is today considered mainly only as a means of earning money, it can be assumed that the need for money will grow to a certain limit, depending on the standard of living, after which money will become a condition for normal psychological condition, preservation of human dignity. In this case, other groups of needs related to the need for creativity, achievement of success, and others may become dominant.

Needs are constantly changing, so you cannot expect that motivation that worked once will be effective in the future. With the development of personality, opportunities and needs for self-expression expand. Thus, the process of motivation by satisfying needs is endless.

The next area of ​​improving motivation - improving the organization of work - includes setting goals, expanding labor functions, enriching work, production rotation, the use of flexible schedules, and improving working conditions.

Goal setting assumes that a correctly set goal, through the formation of an orientation towards its achievement, serves as a motivating tool for the employee.

Expanding labor functions implies introducing diversity into the work of personnel, that is, increasing the number of operations performed by one employee. As a result, the work cycle of each employee is lengthened, and the intensity of work increases. The use of this method is advisable in case of underutilization of workers and own desire them to expand the range of their activities, otherwise this may lead to severe resistance from employees.

For mass worker professions, it is best to use production rotation, which involves alternating types of work and production operations, when workers periodically exchange jobs during the day, which is typical primarily for the brigade form of labor organization.

Management uses at least 6 methods of non-monetary incentives

• 1. APPROVAL. Approval is an even more powerful way of reward than money, which of course will always mean a lot. Almost all people respond positively if they feel valued and respected. There are the following manager rules:
  • - praise immediately
  • - praise the person's work
  • - say that you are satisfied and you are pleased that the employee did this
  • - after this, you should not stand over the employee’s soul, so, having completed your mission, leave.
• 2. ACTION. Employees who purchase shares and become part owners behave like owners. But in order to use this method of reward, the enterprise must use group acceptance management decision, instead of authoritarian and produce competitive goods. Henry Ford also used this method. In his enterprises, workers were shareholders. Research from Michigan State University has shown that using this type of compensation can increase a firm's income by 1.5 times. Unfortunately, in our Russian reality there is a pathetic parody of this system due to the failure to fulfill the above conditions.
• 3. REWARD WITH FREE TIME. This will help keep employees from developing the habit of wasting time and allow the employee to spend more time on himself and his family if he completes work before the allotted time. This method is suitable for people with a free schedule. Otherwise, management is tempted to increase the amount of work.
• 4. MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND SHOWING INTEREST IN THE EMPLOYEE. The method of remuneration is most significant for effective professional employees. For them, internal rewards carry a lot of weight. This approach requires managers to have good informal contact with their subordinates, as well as knowledge of what worries and interests them.
• 5. PROMOTION THROUGH THE SERVICE LADDER AND PERSONAL GROWTH. This method of reward requires serious financial costs senior management. Moving up brings power, not just material wealth. People love her even more than money.
• 6. PROVIDING INDEPENDENCE AND FAVORITE WORK. This method is especially good when employees strive to become professionals, but feel the pressure of control over themselves or feel that they would do other work much more professionally, with more impact and better results. Here, the manager’s art lies in the ability to identify such an employee, which can be difficult when these actions are taken for just another control event. Very often such people could work effectively without supervision from above, but the lack of some courage prevents them from approaching management about this.

Social needs

1. Give employees jobs that allow them to communicate.
2. Create a team spirit in your workplace.
3. Hold periodic meetings with your subordinates.
4. Do not try to destroy informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization.
5. Create conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside its framework.

Respect Needs

1. Offer your subordinates more meaningful work.
2. Provide them with positive feedback on the results achieved.
3. Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates.
4. Involve subordinates in setting goals and making decisions.
5. Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates.
6. Promote your subordinates up the career ladder.
7. Provide training and retraining that improves competency.

Self-expression needs

1. Provide subordinates with training and development opportunities that enable them to reach their full potential.
2. Give your subordinates complex and important work that requires their full commitment.
3. Encourage and develop creative abilities in subordinates.

Factors of "health" are factors of the environment in which work takes place. They can be seen as a need to eliminate/avoid difficulties. The absence of these factors causes a feeling of irritation and dissatisfaction. The presence of environmental factors ensures normal conditions work and, as a rule, does not contribute to the activation of human activity. For example, comfortable conditions labor, normal lighting, heating, etc., working hours, wages, relationships with management and colleagues.

• Salary is usually not a motivating factor.
• To eliminate the feeling of dissatisfaction, the manager needs to pay special attention to “health” factors. In the absence of feelings of dissatisfaction and irritation, motivating staff using “health” factors is useless.
• After the employee is provided with everything necessary to achieve his goals, the manager must concentrate all his efforts on motivational factors.

3. McClelland's three-factor theory considers only three types of acquired needs that activate human activity: power, success, involvement.

There is a certain similarity between this theory and the theory of A. Maslow. The needs for power and success are characteristic of people who have achieved the satisfaction of the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs - the need for respect. The need for belonging is characteristic of people who have achieved the satisfaction of the third level of needs - social needs.

Unlike A. Maslow, McClelland believes that only the need for power is a motivational factor. Therefore, in practice, this theory is more applicable to people seeking to occupy a certain position in an organization.

K. Alderfer's theory of needs- one of the most common content theories of motivation. These theories describe the structure of needs, their content, and the connection with a person’s motivation for activity. Clayton Paul Alderfer (born 1940) is a psychologist at Yale University.

[edit]Basic theory

Alderfer agrees with Maslow's theory. According to Alderfer, people care about only three needs - the need to exist, the need to communicate with others and the need for their growth and development. He argued that these three needs are similar to the needs identified by Maslow. The need to exist is similar to the physiological need. The need to communicate with others is a social type need. The need for growth is the need for self-realization, for respect.

Clayton Alderfer argued that today's needs may remain unsatisfied in five years, and then the guidelines can be changed. As a young person, a person may aspire to become the president of a company. In adulthood, he may no longer want to become president, since it takes up too much of his life. This is a different way of looking at human needs.

[edit]Differences from Maslow's theory

Alderfer's theory has a fundamental difference from Maslow's theory - movement through the hierarchy can be carried out both from the bottom up and from the top down if the needs of the upper level are not satisfied. You can move from the need to exist to the need to communicate. But your career growth may slow down, and instead of striving to climb the career ladder, you will be interested in relationships with people.

Victor Vroom's expectancy theory.

According to expectancy theory, the presence of a need is not the only necessary condition for motivation. A person must also hope (expect) that the type of behavior he chooses will actually lead to the intended goal. Expectations according to this model can be regarded as an estimate of the probability of an event. When analyzing motivation, the relationship is considered three elements: costs – results; results - reward; valence (satisfaction with reward). Vroom's model can be represented as follows: Motivation = (Z=>P) * (P=>V) * Valence where (Z=>P) – expectations that efforts will yield desired results; (P=>B) - expectations that results will entail reward; Valence is the expected value of a reward. If the value of one of these factors is low, then motivation will be low.

Theory of justice.

Equity theory postulates that people subjectively evaluate the reward received by relating it to the effort expended and the rewards of other people. If people believe that they have been unfairly treated, their motivation decreases and they tend to reduce the intensity of their efforts.

The theory of motivation by L. Porter - E. Lawler.

This theory is built on a combination of elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. Its essence is that the relationship between remuneration and achieved results has been introduced. L. Porter and E. Lawler introduced three variables that affect the amount of reward: effort expended, personal qualities a person and his abilities and awareness of his role in the labor process. Elements of expectancy theory here are manifested in the fact that the employee evaluates the reward in accordance with the effort expended and believes that this reward will be adequate for the effort expended. Elements of equity theory are manifested in the fact that people have their own judgment about the correctness or incorrectness of rewards in comparison with other employees and, accordingly, the degree of satisfaction. Hence the important conclusion that it is the results of work that are the reason for employee satisfaction, and not vice versa. Among domestic scientists greatest success in the development of the theory of motivation achieved L.S. Vygodsky and his students A. N. Leontiev and B. F. Lomov. However, their work was not developed, since they studied the problems of psychology only using the example of pedagogical activity. Vygodsky's theory states that in the human psyche there are two parallel levels of development - the highest and the lowest, which determine the high and low needs of a person and develop in parallel. This means that it is impossible to satisfy the needs of one level using the means of another. For example, if at a certain point in time a person needs to satisfy his lower needs first, material incentives are triggered. In this case, the highest human needs can only be realized in non-material ways. L.S. Vygodsky concluded that higher and lower needs, developing in parallel and independently, collectively control human behavior and his activities.

Goal setting theory

The lead developers are Edwin Locke, myself, T. Ryan, G. Lyatham, P. Freaker and Mac Gregor.

The process of goal setting in general is as follows: the individual is aware of and evaluates the events occurring in his environment. Based on this, he defines goals for himself and, based on them, carries out actions, performs certain work, achieves results and receives satisfaction from this.

The theory states that the level of job performance depends on four characteristics of goals (and the effort involved in achieving them).

The complexity of a goal reflects the required level of work performance to achieve it. The more complex the goals a person sets for himself, the better results he achieves (except for unrealistic ones).

The specificity of a goal reflects its quantitative clarity, precision, and certainty. More specific goals lead to better results.

Goal acceptability refers to the extent to which a person recognizes the organization's goal as his or her own.

Commitment to a goal reflects the level of effort expended to achieve goals. Management must constantly monitor the level of commitment to the goal by employees and take measures to maintain it at a high level.

Employee satisfaction with the results of work is not only the last step of the motivation process in the theory of goal setting; it not only completes the motivation process, but also forms the basis for the next motivation cycle.

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Theory of equality.

The concept of participatory management

1) The founder of the theory of equality is S. Adams. The main idea of ​​this theory is that in the process of work a person compares how his actions were evaluated with how the actions of others were evaluated. And based on this comparison, depending on whether he is satisfied with his comparative assessment or not, the person modifies his behavior. In the comparison process, although objective information is used, the comparison is made by a person based on his personal perception of his actions and the actions of the people with whom he makes the comparison. This theory operates with the following concepts: an individual is a person who considers the organization’s assessment of his actions from the standpoint of justice and injustice. Comparable persons are individuals or a group of people in relation to whom the individual compares the assessment of his actions. An individual's perceived reward is the combined amount of reward received by an individual for individual performance outcomes. This value is subjective in nature and is the result of the individual’s perception of the reward of his actions. Perceived reward of others is the sum of all rewards that the individual perceives the comparison individuals to have received.

The perceived costs of an individual are a person’s perception of what he contributed to carry out actions and obtain a result. Perceived results of others - an individual's perception of the total amount of costs and contributions made by compared individuals. Norm is the ratio of perceived costs to perceived rewards.

The theory of equality says that it is very important for a person how his norm relates to the norm of others. If the norms are equal, then a person, even with less reward, feels fair, since in this case there is equality.

Adams identifies 6 possible human reactions to a state of inequality:

A person may decide for himself that he needs to cut costs, there is no need to work hard and expend great effort. The result of inequality is a decrease in the quality of work;

The individual may attempt to increase the reward. He will demand higher pay;

A person can reassess his capabilities. He may decide that he thought about his abilities incorrectly. At the same time, his level of self-confidence decreases;

A reaction to inequality may be an individual's attempt to influence the organization and the individuals being compared, either to force them to increase costs or to force them to reduce their rewards;

A person can change the object of comparison for himself by deciding that the person or group of people with whom he is being compared is in special conditions;

A person may try to move to another department or even leave the organization completely.

2) The concept of participatory management. This concept is based on the fact that if a person in an organization takes an interested part in various intra-organizational activities, then he works with greater efficiency, better, with higher quality and productivity. It is believed that participative management, by giving the employee access to decision-making on issues related to his functioning in the organization, motivates the person to perform better at work. It not only contributes to the fact that a person copes better with his work, but also leads to greater impact, a greater contribution of the individual employee to the life of the organization (the potential of the organization’s human resources is more fully utilized).

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