What is rationality?

Rationality in philosophy is broad concept. Its different facets relating to many cognitive aspects of life human personality, in their sum give a general picture of the phenomenon of the mind.

Definition 1

AT broad sense words, rationality is an ideological convention that involves the transformation of any phenomenon, both natural and social, or action into thought, reflection of a person. In a narrower sense, rationality is a type of thinking, perception of the surrounding world, a methodological setting scientific research.

Within the philosophy of science most widespread received the typology of scientific rationality proposed by V.S. Stepin. He distinguishes three types of rationality: classical, non-classical and post-non-classical.

Stepin distinguishes these types based on the following criteria:

1. the dominant ideal of knowledge;
2. methodological setting of knowledge;
3. typology present in the era of systemic relations in science.

Classical type of rationality

The emergence of classical rationality is associated with the philosophy of modern times. First of all, with Rene Descartes, one of the main developers of the methodology of modern science, which takes as a basis the idea of ​​rationality, while refusing the mysticism inherent in the Christian period in the development of science. God here is one of the true substances, along with others.

The goal of modern rationalists was to establish science, natural science and mathematics as one of the central phenomena of the spiritual life of man.

Classical rationalism is the belief that the mind, guided by the correct methods (F. Bacon and R. Descartes offer such in their philosophical projects), is able to unravel the mystery of nature, to know it and to achieve a scientific understanding of divine being.

In addition, faith in the power of reason extended not only to the sphere of science, but also to the structure of society. Classical rationality is sure that society can be built according to reasonable principles.

If in the $17th century $ philosophers of science sought to find a pure, infallible methodology of knowledge, then in $ late XIX century $ there is a new scientific revolution, which served as the emergence of non-classical rationality.

Non-classical type of rationality

The emergence of a non-classical type of rationality is associated with discoveries in physics, cosmology, biology, with the advent of cybernetics, which influenced the change in the picture of the world.

Representatives of the non-classical type of rationality assert the unity of the stages in the development of science.

The peculiarity of this type of rationality lies in the fact that the previously obligatory truth and absoluteness of the method in science is denied here. From now on, the scientific method is included in the structure of theory. This increases its effectiveness.

Non-classical methodology is based on probabilistic methods that involve large quantity possible solutions scientific problems than in classical rationality based on strict determinism.

At $60-70. The rudiments of a post-nonclassical type of rationality appear in the 20th century. This is due to the release of the supplemented book by T. Kuhn “Structure scientific revolutions» ($1970$) and disputes around it.

Post-nonclassical type of rationality

The post-nonclassical type of rationality is associated with the discoveries of synergetics. Science turns to the analysis of complex self-organizing systems. In addition, the new subject of science includes a person, which gives rise to anthropological and moral questions.

Post-nonclassical rationality is distinguished by the use of complex methods that involve interdisciplinarity. In natural science, methods of historical reconstruction are used, computer simulation etc.

Science ceases to be a value-free phenomenon. This affects the understanding of the relationship between science and technology. AT modern world scientific discovery can not only bring good, but if used improperly, harm. Therefore, scientists in their research take into account the value of nature and man.

Researchers of rationality today propose to distinguish three of its varieties:

• classical type of rationality,
• non-classical type of rationality,
• post-nonclassical type of rationality.

Types of rationality are manifested not only in the high spheres of scientific comprehension of the world, but also in ordinary life. The types of rationality describe the most characteristic principles of organizing and processing information, the principles of building a picture of the world, and decision-making mechanisms.

Classical type of rationality

The classical paradigm is associated with the search for the "correct" methodology of scientific research, which should lead to the construction of an accurate picture of nature. Variability and variation are a sign of delusion. The subject of cognition in such a consideration, as it were, was taken out of the brackets. According to this view, the principles of rational utterance had to be subject to precise calculation and ideological impartiality. It was believed that they should retain their significance in any era, in any cultural and historical region.

Type classical rationality characterized by the following features:

• monism(the idea that there is a certain single root cause, it is also the beginning of being);
• logocentrism(the idea of ​​a fundamentally hierarchical structure of the world);
• teleologism(the idea of ​​the existence of a certain goal, an initial project, a plan, in accordance with which the course of world history and specific events unfold).

In the classical paradigm, information can be true or false. There are ways to separate one from the other, or someday there will definitely be. Two times two is four, trains must run on time, the patient must be diagnosed correctly, and the thief must be in jail.

Teleologism implies the existence of transpersonal values: family, national, state, professional, religious, moral, creative.

The carriers of the classical paradigm are trying to build a holistic and, if possible, consistent worldview, although this is not an easy task in a constantly changing world. At the same time, the lack of information can be compensated by faith, not necessarily religious. It may be a belief in freedom, justice, law, progress, or other values. Faith, reliance on traditions and authorities help to make decisions in difficult situations.

Non-classical type of rationality

The non-classical paradigm proceeded from the idea that there is no "absolute" scientific method, and that the answer depends on the way the question is posed.

At this stage, the pictures of reality developed in individual sciences still retained their independence, but each of them participated in the formation of ideas, which were then included in the general scientific picture of the world. The latter, in turn, was not considered as an accurate and final portrait. true knowledge about the world.

Non-classical type of rationality has features that are alternative to classical rationality: the ideal of monism is opposed to pluralism, the ideal of logocentrism - autonomy, the ideal of teleologism - alternativeness.

In a dispute, truth is born. The search for truth is an endless process, a path in which alternative opinions and hypotheses in equally valuable. At the same time, the carriers of the non-classical type of rationality try to understand the essence of someone else's statement, to find a healthy grain in it.

An important part of the non-classical type of rationality is critical thinking. Critical thinking- the ability of a person to question incoming information, his own beliefs. This is the ability to find weak spots not only in others, but also in their own reasoning.

Thus, in Everyday life strong point non-classical type of rationality is the ability to understand the opponent and see their own mistakes.

A feature of the non-classical type of rationality is the inability to make a judgment in the absence of sufficient grounds. This feature pushes the carriers of the non-classical type of rationality to the periphery of public life.

Post-nonclassical type of rationality

Post-nonclassical type of rationality relies on the following principles:

• rhizome principle,
• network principle,
• synergistic paradigm.

rhizome is a kind of formation in which all its elements are in a state of interpenetrating connectivity.

The rhizome principle as a principle of thought and a principle of organization presupposes methodological anarchism. None of the elements of this or that sphere of knowledge, values, experience, practical skills can claim the role of the main, initial, central, the only correct one.

Network principle is a type of thinking based on a network model of communication, which is characterized by openness, lack of hierarchy, self-government and self-determination.

Synergistic paradigm means perception social formations and communications as complex self-developing systems with a non-linear, multi-vector nature of dynamics.

The late classical type of rationality takes into account the influence of culture, era on judgment, considers the statement and the conditions in which it arose as a whole.

In everyday life, a modern person is faced with huge flows of information, receives knowledge from a variety of, sometimes contradictory sources. At the same time, the criteria by which information is accepted or rejected can be very different. Convincing information can be obtained from a well-known source, often repeated, designed in a certain style, etc.

The strength of the late classical type of rationality is the ability to quickly make decisions based on large amounts of data.

Weak side of this type rationality is that in everyday life its carriers easily become objects of various information manipulations.

We all behave differently in difficult situations, work at a different pace, and react to criticism. Much of this difference is due to the type nervous system. The type of the nervous system can be strong or weak, inert or mobile, balanced or unbalanced. The peculiarities of the nervous system determine the known types of temperament: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic. According to I.P. Pavlov, the strength of the nervous system is […]

Our former compatriot, who now lives in Australia, summarizing Western literary data, gives a description of eight basic, from his point of view, personality types: infantile; authoritarian; machiavellian; accumulative; adventurous; complaisant; altruistic; creative (Zatsepin, 2002). Infantile Infantile personality type (psychopath) is characterized by social underdevelopment: shamelessness and lack of empathy. People of this type are quiet, polite, courteous, even charming, and at the same time […]

A. Miller (A. Miller, 1991) created a typology based on a combination of personality traits. He used three dimensions of personality traits: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive dimension is analyticity-holisticity (in other concepts it is analyticity-syntheticity), that is, the tendency to focus on the whole or parts. The affective dimension is represented by emotional stability - instability, which is determined through the intensity of emotional reactions. […]

This American psychologist believed that early childhood and relationships in the family are the determining factors in the formation of personality. Therefore, the five types of personality identified by him (consumer, exploitative, hoarding, market and productive) rather reflect the influence of social rather than innate factors (E. Fromm, 1964). Consumer type A person believes that the source of all goods is outside, and is determined to […]

Researchers of rationality today propose to distinguish three of its varieties: the classical type of rationality, the non-classical type of rationality, and the post-non-classical type of rationality. Types of rationality are manifested not only in the high spheres of scientific comprehension of the world, but also in ordinary life. The types of rationality describe the most characteristic principles of organizing and processing information, the principles of building a picture of the world, and decision-making mechanisms. Classical type of rationality Classical […]

Rationality (from lat.) - 1) counting, calculus; 2) mind, thinking. In Greek - associated with the idea of ​​the expressibility of clarity. Those. rationality is identified with the logical, opposed to the sensual.

There are several definitions of rationality:

Max Weber. Distinguishes between European and traditional societies. European society - an expedient (rational) society (calculations, calculation without a trace, quantitative accounting, control, division of functions, orientation towards standards, norms, established rules); traditional - traditionally expedient society (value-rational).

Lebedev S.A. Rationality is a type of thinking and knowledge. Properties: language expressiveness; definition of concepts; consistency; validity, reflexivity; openness to criticism; ability for self-improvement.

G. Lenk. The concept of rationality is given through the enumeration of all the meanings used in life: the logical following of the argument from the accepted premises; reasonable coordination and combination of individual knowledge into a kind of systemic connection; development of rational expressibility of concepts; instrumental rationality (minimum costs in achieving a particular result in a person's practical activity); formally - scientifically provable; Rationality is a set of rules, standards, norms, evidence of knowledge, stages of its explanation, justification and description.

The concept of rationality is also applied to all types of practical activity. The concept of rationality (standard, rule) tends to turn all types of human activity (theory, practice) into a scheme in which there is no place for feelings, inclinations, desires, values, etc. Rationality in theoretical and cognitive terms means a characteristic of the process of cognition for which the following is essential: this knowledge must be expressed in a concept, logically substantiated, theoretically based, systematized.

scientific rationality

Rationality in the field of science - activities aimed at obtaining a new scientific knowledge, the search for truth. Scientific rationality is distinguished by more precise, rigorous methods of proof. The concepts of rationality and scientific rationality have different meanings. Many types of knowledge: ordinary, philosophical, religious, legal are rational, but are not scientific. Main properties: object objectivity (empirical or theoretical), uniqueness, proof, verifiability, ability to improve. Typification of scientific rationality (Stepin): The classical type of scientific rationality (17th - 1st half of the 19th century), focusing on the object, seeks to remove everything that relates to the subject, means and operations of his activity in the course of theoretical explanation and description . Such elimination is considered as a necessary condition for obtaining objectively true knowledge about the world. The goals and values ​​of science, which determine research strategies and ways of fragmenting the world, at this stage, as well as at all others, are determined by the worldview attitudes and value orientations that dominate in culture. Objects in classical natural science were considered mainly as small (simple) systems. The non-classical type of rationality (late 19 - mid 20) takes into account the links between knowledge about the object and the nature of the means and operations of activity, considering the object as woven into human activity. Post-nonclassical type of scientific rationality. It takes into account the correlation of the acquired knowledge about the object not only with the peculiarity of the means and operations of the activity, but also with the value-target structures. The objects of modern interdisciplinary research are increasingly becoming unique systems characterized by openness and self-development. new type rationality only limits the scope of the previous, determining its applicability only to certain types problems and tasks.

Realization of the properties of scientific rationality can be achieved in different ways in different types of sciences, hence its different types arise.

Types of scientific rationality

Logical-mathematical Keywords: ideal objectivity, formal evidence, analytical verification. Historically the first. Mathematical, logical theories are built on the basis of deductive-axiomatic method. This method assumes that of the axioms, which are a set of general provisions, obvious truths accepted without proof in a given theoretical system, according to certain logical rules, all other provisions of the theory are derived, called consequences, which are of a more particular nature. In the most concentrated form, it manifested itself in the construction of geometric theory in Euclid's Elements.

The logical-mathematical form of scientific rationality is characterized by such essential features as the strictly deductive nature of constructions, accuracy, logical evidence, consistency, immutability of conclusions.

Undoubtedly, the mathematical standard of scientificity has great epistemological value, but it cannot claim to be universal, because the criterion of consistency has serious limitations in natural science and social and humanitarian theories. It is known that complex meaningful theories cannot be fully formalized and expressed by means of abstract logical symbols and schemes. In addition, scientists actively use the category of “contradiction” and other dialectical categories to study changes in the object of cognition.

natural science : empirical objectivity, the possibility of infinite reproducibility of the results of observations is assumed, partial logical provability, experimental verifiability. If in mathematics and logic the axiomatic method of constructing scientific theories, then in the empirical sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) hypothetical-deductive a method that involves the formation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which explanatory statements about empirical facts are derived. This means that a hypothetical construction is deployed, including the general hypotheses of the upper tier and hypotheses of the lower tiers, which are consequences of the first hypotheses, which is then subjected to empirical testing based on the use of actual data.

If the criterion of the truth of a logico-mathematical theory is its logical proof, then the truth of a physical theory must ultimately be experimentally confirmed.

Engineering - technical Keywords: empirical verifiability, practical effectiveness, objectivity; If the object of study of natural sciences are certain fragments of natural reality, then the object of engineering and technical sciences ultimately are man-made and functioning machines, mechanisms, other artificial processes or states.

Logico-mathematical and experimental methods are translated from logic-mathematical and natural sciences into engineering: the deductive mathematical method of Descartes, the hypothetical-deductive experimental method of Galileo, Newton were of tremendous importance for technicians and engineers. But in addition to these methods, a special method is used in engineering and technical sciences. design – method of scientific and technical calculations on the drawing of the main parameters of the future technical system, its preliminary study.

The goal of technical rationality is not only the construction of theoretical structures (for example, in such sciences as the strength of materials, hydraulics), but also the development of practical and methodological recommendations for the application of knowledge gained theoretically in engineering practice aimed at designing technical systems. The specificity of the technical sciences lies in the fact that the technical theory is initially focused on the creation of functioning objects ( technical means transport, communications, household, industrial, agricultural machinery, etc.).

In the engineering and technical sciences, there is the following criterion of truth: in engineering, the adequacy of theoretical conclusions is checked and new empirical material is scooped up. Reliable functioning of the created technical system is a sure way to confirm the truth of theoretical constructions.

Social and humanitarian : social value objectivity, integrity, cultural validity, adaptive usefulness, reflexivity (orientation to a certain model, standard).

Humanitarian knowledge has its own specifics and the following features:

Inclusion of the subject of knowledge (social scientist) in the object of knowledge (society studied by him);

The dependence of humanitarian knowledge on social class interests, as well as on various worldview (political, moral, religious, etc.) orientations of individuals;

Significant dynamism of social phenomena and the need for prompt correction of ideas in connection with the changed socio-historical conditions;

Limited use of quantitative and experimental methods knowledge;

The special role of dialogue (personalities, texts, cultures) in the process of interpreting social and individual activity;

Widespread use of the method of historical reconstruction, as well as the logical method in humanitarian knowledge.

In the new open, flexible scientific rationality, the object sphere is expanded due to the inclusion of systems in it. artificial intelligence”, “virtual systems”, “cyborg relationships”, which are themselves products of scientific and technological progress. This radical expansion of the object sphere goes hand in hand with its radical humanization. The thinking of a person with his goals, values, orientations carries characteristics that merge with the subject content of the object. Therefore, the post-nonclassical understanding of rationality presupposes the unity of subjectivity and objectivity. This also penetrates social content. The categories of subject and object form a system whose elements acquire meaning only in mutual dependence on each other and on the system as a whole. What is inscribed in the existing system of social relations turns out to be rational, and what contradicts it is declared irrational.

Types of rationality.

In reasoning about rationality, there have always been assumptions about differences in its degree. One judgment or action turns out to be more rational, the other less so. An indication of the degree has always assumed the correspondence of the real and the proper - of what is done or thought, to how it should be done or thought. However, with this approach, we are vicious circle. thinking mind directs what is thought and done, and he also sets the norms, standards and rules of how it should be thought and done. So why is something more rational and something less? What does it depend on? It turns out that if rationality depended only on the mind, and the mind would rule the world, it would have the status of universality and would not encounter what is not it. Hence the need arises - to bring rationality beyond the limits of reason, to connect it with something external, say, with the eternal regularity or orderliness of nature, to declare rational everything that corresponds to the ideas of orderliness and regularity. But statistical regularities, including probability, randomness and chaos as aperiodic, devoid of regularity, again refute rationality with the attribute of order.

Modern scientific rationality is represented by two varieties: open and closed type of rationality. Open rationality reflects the fact of constant improvement of the apparatus of analysis, methods of explanation and justification, the very process of an endless search for truth. Closed rationality functions on the basis of predetermined norms and goals. However, what appears to be rational in closed rationality ceases to be so in the context of open rationality. For example, solving production problems is not always

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rationally in the context of ecological. Or, as A. Nikiforov notes, an activity that is irrational from the point of view of science can be quite rational from other points of view, for example, from the point of view of obtaining degree. Generally speaking, for science, any activity that is not aimed at obtaining the truth will be irrational. In addition, open rationality cannot be provided with the degree of technological methodologism that is possible in situations of closed rationality.

What is the limit of rationality? Of course,

rationality and rationalization are limited by the "opacity of being", which does not make it possible to realize the ideal plans of activity developed by rational consciousness. This can be considered an ontological limitation of rationality. It is also limited by the real finiteness of the concrete historical subject of cognition and by those forms of cognitive activity that have developed and are at his disposal. This is the epistemological basis of limited rationality.

Rationality is limited by the presence in human nature such elements as feelings, emotions, passions and affects, is an anthroposophical limitation of rationality. Rationality is limited by the presence in a person of the factor of bodily and physiological needs, forcing him to obey not reason, but nature - a biological limitation of rationality. In addition, rationality can be limited by the aggressiveness of authentic self-assertion.

Rationality is attributed to a certain initial activity, understood as the ability of thinking to initiate this or that activity necessary for rational transformation any situation. However, rationalism is also accused of impotence, referring to the reign of absurdity in modern society, the instincts of violence and aggression, the creation of new types of weapons that are contrary to reason. mass destruction. The thirst for power and the thirst for consumerism are stronger than reason.

Today, in the age of recognition of energy-information interactions, the criteria for distinguishing the rational from the non-rational are very vague and allow arbitrary interpretation depending on certain social conflicts.

Rationality in the structure of consciousness.

When rationality is associated with the conscious control of one's own behavior, two mandatory conditions are assumed: self-control and consideration of generally valid norms and requirements. Rationality is understood as the highest ability of consciousness, and rational thinking as the top of all structural characteristics consciousness. Despite the fact that in the XX century. it has become fashionable to define consciousness as something

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“directly grasping”, understanding, “knowing itself and its basis”, the same XX century. extended system-structural analysis to linguistics, cultural studies, ethnography, sociology. He also captured such a complex research area as human consciousness, rationalizing it to the maximum. As you know, any structure implies the presence of elements, their interaction, subordination and hierarchy. Structure (from lat. structure - structure, arrangement, order) expresses a set of stable connections of an object that ensure its integrity and identity to itself during various external and internal changes.

The application of the system-structural method to the analysis of consciousness in order to reveal the true status of rationality in its structure does not mean at all that consciousness is treated as a device consisting of "bricks and cement". Empirically, consciousness appears as a continuously changing set of sensory and mental images. Consciousness is a special kind of wholeness, where in a constant stream of mental phenomena mental images arise and rush, ideas and interests are realized, random and deep impressions flicker. They appear before the subject in his "internal experience" and anticipate activity. At the same time, something stable and invariant is preserved in this constantly changing content, which allows us to speak about the general structure of consciousness of both the individual and society. Signs of consciousness are reasonable motivation, foresight of personal and social consequences of actions, the ability to self-control. All these features can equally well be attributed to rationality. However, consciousness is also characterized by intentionality (focus on the object), reflexivity and self-observation, empathy associated with the instant acceptance of a particular phenomenon, with different levels of clarity. Consciousness can be both maximally concentrated and sharply dispersed. It is possible to speak about clear, dark, and also about twilight consciousness.

When researchers begin to study the structure of consciousness, they always encounter a paradoxical situation. Consciousness as a sensory-supersensible object clearly reveals itself, but nevertheless eludes direct analysis. On the one hand, consciousness is not conceivable outside of its material substrate - the brain and matter. On the other hand, consciousness is not reducible either to the substratum itself - the brain, or to matter. Even the most skilful anatomist, having traced the nerve to the cerebellum, cannot approach the origin that gives feelings and thought. The structure of consciousness can be understood as a contradictory unity

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the existence of I and not I. The latter is being, the external reality of objective reality, own body, own I, another I - You. It is usually customary to start characterizing the structure of consciousness from the side of the I. The main elements of consciousness are: sensation, perception, representation, memory, emotions, will, rational thinking. But none of these components can be significant in itself. It acquires the role of a necessary structural element of consciousness only in a really functioning consciousness. Sensations cut off from subsequent forms of consciousness lose their cognitive meaning. Isolation of sensations from thinking, will from feelings is unlawful. Already Hegel considered unfair the assertion that the mind and will are completely independent of each other and that the mind can act without regret, and the will can do without the mind. Consciousness is such a dynamic system where every mental act is correlated and interconnected both with other acts and with external being.

It is customary to begin the analysis of the structure of consciousness with a description of sensation as the most elementary, further indecomposable and structureless cognitive phenomenon. Sensation is a reflection of individual properties of objects of the objective world during their direct impact on the sense organs. The information capacity of the human senses is distributed as follows: the largest amount of information received is associated with vision, followed by touch, hearing, taste, and smell.

A holistic image that reflects the direct impact on the senses of individual objects is called perception. Perception is a structural image consisting of a complex of sensations. In understanding the nature of perception, a large place is given to motor processes that adjust the work of the perceptual system to the characteristics of the object. This refers to the movement of the hand, feeling the object, the movement of the eyes, tracing the visible contour, the tension of the muscles of the larynx, reproducing an audible sound. Another characteristic of perception is intention - focus on any situation, which provides the possibility of subjective transformations of the image, the purpose of which is to bring it to a form suitable for decision-making.

When the process of direct impact on the sense organs stops, the image of the object does not disappear without a trace, it is stored in memory. Memory is a structural component of consciousness, which is associated with the mechanisms of capturing, storing, reproducing and processing information entering the brain. There are various types of memory: motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical, as well as long-term and short-term. Many observations indicate that there is no strong relationship between

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repetition and long-term memory. long term memory largely depends on motivational sphere person.

As a result of memory retention external influences presentation occurs. Representations are, firstly, images of those objects that once influenced the human senses, and then were restored according to the traces preserved in the brain in the absence of these objects, and secondly, images created by the efforts of a productive imagination. Representations exist in two forms: in the form of memories and imagination. If perceptions relate only to the present, then representations - both to the past and to the future. Representations differ from perception by a lesser degree of clarity and distinctness.

The most important element of consciousness and its highest form is thinking. Thinking is associated with a purposeful, generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person. Thinking is an organized search process that differs from the chaotic game of associations and involves movement in accordance with the logic of the subject. To the question: "Is it possible to live without thinking?" - Locke answered positively, arguing that there are people who most lives are spent without thought.

The disclosure of deep, essential connections by rational thought inevitably leads beyond the limits of sensory certainty, therefore, when characterizing the activity of thinking, they resort to its conceptual form. Thinking can be reflective or non-reflective. Reflection (from Latin reflexio - turning back), to reflect means to direct your thoughts to understanding yourself and how others know and understand. We can say that the reflective seeks to achieve a logical content that has the status of universality and necessity. Reflection appears when the subject tries to develop any thought in the form of a concept, i.e. master it categorically.

The discovery of functional brain asymmetry showed that information processes in the two hemispheres of the brain proceed differently. At first, the difference between the functions of the hemispheres was simplistically interpreted as corresponding to two types of thinking: the left hemisphere, responsible for logic, and the right hemisphere, for artistic imagery. It is now clear that the difference lies elsewhere. Both the left and right hemispheres are able to perceive and process information presented both in verbal sign and in figurative form. The main difference is that left-brain thinking organizes any material in such a way that it creates an unambiguous context. Right hemispheric thinking forms a multi-valued context that is not read by all participants in communication in the same way and cannot be used.

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Any creativity begins with the formulation of a problem, a task to be solved. Industrial civilization is a rational civilization, where science plays a key role, stimulating the development of new ideas and new technologies.

Awareness of the diversity of forms of existence of scientific rationality, which accompanied the philosophical understanding of the scientific revolutions of the 20th century, in modern philosophy science is based on the concepts of ideals and types of rationality.

The concept of "rational" is multifaceted. Rationality scientific, philosophical, religious - not alternatives, but rather facets of a single and many-sided human mind. Revealing the specifics of these features of rationality, one should pay attention to the priorities, accents, values ​​that determine one or another type of rationality. In our country, serious research has been carried out on the problem historical types scientific rationality (M.K. Mamardashvili, V.S. Shvyrev, E.Yu. Soloviev, V.A. Lektorsky, P.P. Gaidenko, A.P. Ogurtsov, V.S. Stepin). Most often, there are two types of scientific rationality - classical and non-classical. Today, its third type is also distinguished, which Stepin defines as post-nonclassical scientific rationality.

Exploring the types of scientific rationality and giving them a definition, Acad. Stepin draws attention to the following criteria:

About the nature of ideals and norms of knowledge in given period time, fixing the way of the cognitive attitude of the subject to the world;

About type systemic organization mastered objects and small systems, large self-developing systems and self-developing human-sized systems;

About the method of philosophical and methodological reflection that characterizes the type of rationality.

In our opinion, Stepin's characterization of the historical types of scientific rationality is the most interesting, since all three types are simultaneously, although not to the same extent, present in real science today.

Classical type of scientific rationality. The birth of the phenomenon of scientific rationality is connected with the fundamental reformation of European philosophy in modern times, expressed in its scientization and methodologization. The founder of this reform is considered to be R. Descartes, who prompted the human mind to free itself from the shackles of mysticism and revelation, from the rational limitations of scholasticism.

The goal of the founders of rationality was to establish science (primarily mathematics and mathematized natural science) as the undisputed sole leader.

The science of modern times has deprived of legitimacy any appeals to theological connections in explaining the phenomena of nature. Descartes and his followers believed that God is the "first", true, but not the only substance. Thanks to him, two other substances come to unity - material and thinking. A person is able to understand the material substance, knowing what was created from above. Rationalism in a broad sense is confidence in the ability of the mind, especially the enlightened mind, guided by the right way(from the standpoint of empiricism, F. Bacon argued, and from the standpoint of rationalism - R. Descartes), to unravel the mysteries of nature, to know the world and the person himself, and by all means with the help of the mind to comprehend God. Philosophers of modern times, with the help of common sense, tried to solve practical problems. life tasks and ultimately to rebuild society on reasonable grounds. Unlike the Absolute, the human mind is doubting, searching, capable of delusions and illusions.

The classical paradigm was originally associated with the search for the "correct" methodology of scientific research, which should lead to the construction of an accurate picture of nature. Variability and variation are a sign of delusion that arises due to subjective additions (“idols” or “ghosts”, as Bacon called them). The subject of cognition in such a consideration, as it were, was taken out of the brackets. According to this notion, the principles of rational utterance had to be subject to critical reflection, precise calculation, and ideological impartiality. It was believed that they should retain their significance in any era, in any cultural and historical region.

Bacon saw the purpose of scientific research in enrichment human life new discoveries and blessings. “Whoever believes that the goal of any science is its practical usefulness is certainly right,” he writes. Knowledge is acquired by man not for the sake of knowledge itself, but in order to dominate nature. However, knowledge can become power only if it is materially embodied in technical inventions. Therefore Bacon special meaning gave technical inventions, which should be a product of scientific thought, and not handicraft or magic.

The experiment involves active human intervention in the course of natural processes through the use of technical means. Bacon considered experience to be the basis of natural science, and natural Sciences proclaimed the mother of all sciences. Objectivity can be achieved if nature reflects on itself. For example, the temperature of water can be measured using a thermometer, where the water has an effect on mercury. Thus, experience or experiment serves as an arena where natural agents interact with each other, and not with a person. In this situation, Bacon believed, a person is only an outside observer.

The experiment acts as an intermediary between man and nature and creates the possibility of obtaining objective knowledge. Bacon formulated certain rules for his method and thus gave the "organon" or logic of experience. Logical rules are a mechanism for transferring truth from the experimental data itself low level to higher axioms.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. these ideals and norms of research coped with a number of concretizing provisions that expressed the principles of a mechanistic understanding of nature. In accordance with these guidelines, a mechanistic picture of nature was built and developed, which simultaneously acted both as a picture of reality in relation to the sphere of physical knowledge, and as a general scientific picture of the world. In the scientific and rational knowledge of nature, understood as a mechanism, it is impossible to find an answer to the problems of meaning in life, although it must be borne in mind that in real history science, the formation of a mechanistic picture of the world was largely associated with certain value orientations. Thus, the defenders of mechanism (Descartes, Gassendi, Boyle, Newton) proved its advantages by putting forward arguments of a value order.

In the 19th century, mainly in its last quarter, a paradigm shift took place, expressed in the fact that instead of reduction to a mechanistic picture of the world, they began to use reduction to the entire array of physical knowledge (primarily due to such reduction, physics was called the leader of natural science). A new paradigm science has emerged - classical physics, the obvious examples of which are Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, the Fourier heat equation, statistical physics, etc. At the same time, in new areas of science, such as chemistry and biology, specific pictures of reality are being formed that cannot be reduced to a mechanistic picture. The semantic content of such categories as “thing”, “state”, “process”, “whole”, “causality”, “space”, “time” related to the process of development is changing and enriching. The mechanistic picture of the world is losing its status as a general scientific one.

At the end of the XIX century. a global scientific revolution begins, associated with the formation of non-classical natural science.

Changing the initial requirements for the final interpretation of a scientific theory and understanding what exactly a theory that claims to describe a phenomenon should and can be - all these gradual changes have led to a new understanding of what should be considered a model of scientificity and rationality. Within the framework of classical natural science, elements of a new non-classical thinking arose.

Non-classical type of scientific rationality. The peculiarity of the stages of development of types of scientific rationality is as follows: “between them, as stages in the development of science, there are peculiar “overlaps”, and the emergence of each new type of rationality did not discard the previous one, but limited its scope, determining its applicability only to certain types of problems and tasks".

The non-classical paradigm proceeded from the idea that there is no "absolute" scientific method like Cartesian or Newtonian, and that knowledge about objects must take into account the nature of the methods and means of research. Thus, W. Heisenberg emphasized that the answer of nature to the researcher's question depends not only on its structure, but also on the way the question is posed.

In the era of non-classical science, the problems of the “activity” of scientific theories, their inclusion in the structure of the scientific method, acquired leading importance. scientific method can be defined as theory in action to acquire new knowledge. The inclusion of theory in the structure of the scientific method leads to the fact that the method becomes more and more effective in studying various fragments of reality.

The scientific method has two beginnings - experimental (experimental) and theoretical. Its transformation is associated with the development of new scientific theories, with the fate of theoretical ideas and concepts, with the processes of revolutionary transformations in physics (the discovery of the divisibility of the atom, the formation of relativistic and quantum theories), cosmology (the concept of a non-stationary Universe), chemistry (quantum chemistry), biology (the formation genetics), with the emergence of cybernetics and systems theory, with which the scientific picture of the world changed.

The methods of non-classical science are characterized primarily by probabilistic, statistical approaches that transform the very vision of the world, contain more internal possibilities for representing the properties and patterns of being than theoretical systems built on the basis of fundamentally rigid determinism.

As Acad. Stepin, at this stage, the pictures of reality developed in individual sciences still retained their independence, but each of them participated in the formation of ideas, which were then included in the general scientific picture of the world. The latter, in turn, was not regarded as an accurate and final portrait of true knowledge about the world.

Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev, reflecting on scientific rationality and its specificity in comparison with philosophy, believed that science should be freed from metaphysical predispositions and that this is better for both science and philosophy.

At the same time, scientific theorizing itself, firstly, encountered difficulties in its development every time it faced the need to rethink its own foundations outside the sociocultural context. Secondly, when resolving the problems of natural science, it was necessary to use the categorical apparatus of philosophy, to consider issues of a broader range of problems. Primarily we are talking about the basic models of the universe - the initial ideas about the principles of the structure and evolution of the world. For non-classical science, such models are probabilistic, statistical models, which ultimately determined the general worldview and worldview. Many works of A. Einstein, W. Heisenberg, N. Bohr are permeated with philosophical reflections. All this created the conditions for a scientific dialogue between philosophy and science, for the development of the philosophy of natural science.

In the late 1960s - early 1970s. a rethinking of the role of science in the system of culture began, accompanied by its sharp criticism. Since the links between intra-scientific and social values ​​and goals were still not the subject of scientific reflection, whole line representatives of science came up with a program of its radical restructuring. Thus, in 1973, a collection of documents and articles was published in Paris under the characteristic title "Self-Critique of Science", where much attention was paid to the criticism of scientism, considered as an ideology that science developed and which became the new religion of the 20th century. .

M. Heidegger in 1955 in his work "Detachment" writes that the laureates Nobel Prize announced in their address: "Science (i.e., modern natural science) is the path to human happiness." Reflecting on this statement, the German philosopher asks the question: “Did it arise from reflection? Has it thought about the meaning of the atomic age? Heidegger speaks with alarm about a new technogenic civilization, when “with the help of technical means, an attack is being prepared on the life and essence of a person, which cannot even be compared with the explosion of a hydrogen bomb. Since even if H-bomb and will not explode and life on Earth will be preserved, all the same, an ominous change in the world is inevitably approaching along with the atomic age. Debates with critics of science have prompted scientists to reflect on science, its structure, goals, social character, and the relationship of scientific knowledge with culture, with its basic universals.

In 1970, the second, supplemented edition of T. Kuhn's book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" was published, which caused wide discussions. Since that time, we can talk about the establishment of a new microanalytical strategy in historical and scientific research, when the scientist and his activities were considered in a sociocultural context.

In this regard, it is worth quoting the words of A. Einstein, who in the 1930s. wrote to his friend Nobel laureate Max von Laue: “Your opinion that a man of science in political, i.e. in human affairs in a broad sense should not give his voice, I do not share. You can see from the relations that have taken shape in Germany where such self-restraint leads. It only means that the blind and irresponsible yield to the leadership (of the country) without resistance. Is there a lack of responsibility behind this? Where would we be now if people like Giordano Bruno, Spinoza, Voltaire, Humboldt thought and acted the same way.

Post-nonclassical type of scientific rationality. Modern science, focusing on such types of objects as complex self-developing systems in which a person is included, requires a new methodology that takes into account axiological and social factors. Scientific rationality is one of the dominant values ​​of culture, but the type of scientific rationality will have to change. Today scientific communities reconsider their attitude to nature as to an infinite reservoir, acting as something external to man. A new understanding of the subject is emerging, according to which a person is a part of the biosphere as an integral organism.

Traditionally, science and technology were considered morally neutral, and the scientist in the eyes of society was not responsible for the results of the application of his developments. At the same time, their results and achievements can be used both for the benefit of a person and for his evil.

At present, in many countries (USA, Germany, etc.) ethical codes scientist, engineer. The problem has become vital moral reason. B. Pascal called the mind "the logic of the heart." The focus of moral reason must be the prevention of harm or harmful effects for life on earth. Einstein once noted that the problem of our time is not atomic bomb, the problem of our time is the human heart.

In this regard, the idea of ​​“value-neutral research” is being transformed. Objectively true explanation and understanding in relation to "human-dimensional" objects (medical and biological objects, objects of ecology, objects of biotechnology, man-machine systems) not only allow, but also suggest the inclusion of axiological factors in the composition of explanatory provisions.

If classical science was focused on comprehending an increasingly narrowing isolated fragment of reality, acting as the subject of one or another scientific discipline, then the specifics of science modern era define comprehensive research programs in which specialists participate various areas knowledge.

The objects of modern interdisciplinary research are increasingly becoming unique studies characterized by openness and self-development. Objects of this type gradually begin to determine the nature of the subject areas of the main fundamental sciences, determining the image of modern post-non-classical science.

Orientation modern science on the study of complex historically developing systems significantly restructures the ideals and norms of research activity.

In the depths of science, new research strategies are being formed, in particular, synergistic ones. The historicity of a systemic complex object and the variance of its behavior suggest the widespread use of special methods for describing and predicting its states - the construction of scenarios for possible lines of development of the system at bifurcation points. The ideal of the structure of a theory as an axiomatically deductive system is increasingly competing with theoretical descriptions based on the use of the approximation method; theoretical schemes using computer programs, etc. Natural science is increasingly attracting the principles of historical reconstruction, which is a special type of theoretical knowledge that was previously used mainly in humanities(history, archeology, hermeneutics).

Humanity has entered a difficult era of profound change. Changes in everything: in the style of life and in the style of thinking, in the system of views and the system of values. These changes could not but affect science and that area intellectual activity, which is busy understanding science - philosophy. Many prominent naturalists of the XX century. - A. Einstein, N. Bohr, V. Heisenberg, M. Born, I. Prigogine, V.A. Fok, A.A. Lyubishchev, V.A. Engelhard and others - repeatedly noted important role philosophy of science for the progress of natural science. Of course, this role was not always unambiguous. For example, the invasion of ideology into scientific rationalism has done a lot of harm to science. Nevertheless, the development of the philosophy of science has shown with complete certainty that its contact and dialogue with science is possible and necessary.

During the dialogue, heated discussions arise on issues that have not been fully explored. Here are some of them:

• 0 Can it be argued that science is responsible for the crisis of culture? Or did she prevent this crisis?
• 0 If a mathematical or computational experiment plays an important role in post-non-classical science, is the ideal of value-neutral knowledge realizable?
• 0 What should be the relationship between science and intellectual formations claiming the place of science in modern culture (alternative knowledge, parascience, theosophy, etc.)?
• 0 How does scientific rationalism relate to the postmodern notion of fundamental pluralism of concepts and opinions?
• 0 What is the Internet?
• 0 Is it possible to say that the emerging type of scientific rationality is not completely, but in its essential features, similar to that which already existed in antiquity?
• 0 What meaningful life guidelines should change in the very culture of modern civilization in order to create the prerequisites for solving global problems and realization of a new type of civilizational development?

By answering these questions, we are trying to understand how in the XXI century. scientific rationality will change.

And so, in post-non-classical science, the ideas of historicism and evolution merge into a general picture of global evolutionism; “human-sized systems” become the object of science, and social goals and values ​​are included in the explanatory provisions.

REFERENCES

• 1. Berdyaev N.L. Philosophy of freedom. The meaning of creativity. M., 1989.
• 2. Bacon F. On the dignity and multiplication of sciences // Works. T. 1.M., 1971.
• 3. LenkH. Reflections on modern technology. M., 1996.
• 4. Ogurtsov A.P. Social history of science: two research strategies // Philosophy, Science, Civilization. M., 1999.
• 5. Stepin V.S. theoretical knowledge. M., 2003.
• 6. Stepin V.S., Gorokhov V.G., Rozov M.A. Philosophy of science and technology. M., 1999.
• 7. Heidegger M. Conversation on country road. M., 1991.