Stages of ossification of the bones of the hand and wrist joint

AT The process of endochondral bone formation in this part of the osteoarticular system can be divided into three periods:

The first period - before the appearance of the first centers of ossification of anatomical structures that have a cartilaginous structure at the time of birth;

The second period, lasting 12 years - period ossification of the epiphyses of the tubular bones of the forearm and hand and the bones of the wrist;

The third - final - period of synostosis of metaepiphyseal growth zones.

Age up to 4 months. The distal metaepiphyses of the bones of the forearm and the bones of the hand retain the degree of ossification achieved by the end of fetal development. Cartilaginous structure during this period, they have epiphyses of short tubular bones of the hand and bones of the forearm, as well as all the bones of the wrist.

From 4 months before 2 years(Fig. 19.42). There are centers of ossification of two bones of the wrist - the capitate and hook-shaped - and the nucleus of ossification of the distal epiphysis of the radius. The age period for the onset of ossification of the bones of the wrist

Rice. 19.42. Radiograph of the wrist joint (6 months).

The centers of ossification can be traced only in the capitate and hamate bones. 1 - capitate bone; 2 - hook-shaped bone.

Rice. 19.43. Radiograph of the wrist joint (3-4 years).

Ossification nuclei can be traced in: 1 - capitate bone; 2 - hook-shaped bone; 3 - trihedral bone; 4 - lunate bone; 5 - distal epiphysis of the radius; 6 - epiphyses of the bones of the wrist; 7 - epiphyses of the proximal phalanges of the fingers.

tya - 4 months, epiphysis of the radius - 9-12 months. In the same period, the metaphyses of short tubular bones of the hand and bones of the forearm are ossified.

The criterion for the correctness of the ratios in all these joints are: with the middle position of the fingers - the location of both (medial and lateral) edges of the metaphysis of the distal bone at the level of the same edges of the metaphysis of the proximal bone; with radial or ulnar deviation of the fingers - the coincidence of the edges of the metaphyses of the articulating bones only on one side, on the one into which the finger is deviated (with radial deviation - the coincidence of the radial edges of the metaphyses, with ulnar deviation - the ulnar edges).

2 years. Age of onset of ossification of the metacarpal bones and phalanges of the fingers. Due to the independent center of ossification in these bones, only one epiphysis is ossified: in the metacarpal bones - the distal, in the phalanges of the fingers - the proximal. The only exception is the I metacarpal bone, in which the center of ossification has a proximal epiphysis. The sometimes observed nuclei of ossification of the proximal epiphyses of other metacarpal bones, denoted by the term "pseudoepiphyses", are considered as a variant of the norm.

At 3 years old the center of ossification of the third bone of the wrist appears - trihedral.

At 4 years old the lunate bone of the wrist begins to ossify (Fig. 19.43, 19.44).

From 4.5 before At the age of 7, the main manifestation of enchondral bone formation of the wrist joint and hand is the onset of ossification of the three bones of the wrist - the scaphoid, trapezius and trapezoid bones. The beginning of their eye-

Rice. 19.44. Radiograph of the wrist joint (4.5 years- 5 years).

1 - epiphysis of the base of the 1st metacarpal bone.

Rice. 19.45. Radiograph of the wrist joint (6 years).

1 - nucleus of ossification of the trapezoid bone.

stenosis does not have such exact age terms as the four bones of the wrist mentioned above. It can only be noted that in most cases the following sequence of appearance of ossification centers is observed in them: first, the center of ossification of the trapezium bone, then the navicular bone, and in last turn- trapezoidal (Fig. 19.45, 19.46).

The cartilaginous structure is preserved by the age of 7: the marginal sections of the bones of the wrist, the tip of the styloid process of the radius and the head of the ulna together with the styloid process.

At the age of 8-9 years, the main manifestation of enchondral bone formation during the period under consideration is the ossification of the head of the ulna. The first stage of this process is the appearance of the center of ossification of the cartilaginous model of the head itself (Fig. 19.47). In parallel, within a few months, the core of the osseo-

Rice. 19.46. Radiograph of the wrist joint (6-7 years).

1 - nucleus of ossification of the navicular bone.

Rice. 19.47. Radiograph of the wrist joint (8-9 years).

1 - trapezoid bone; 2 - trapezoid bone; 3 - epiphysis of the ulna.

Rice. 19.48. Radiograph of the wrist joint (10-11 years).

1 - tubercle of the epiphysis of the ulna (styloid process).

styloid process. Ossification of most of the head of the ulna and fusion with it of the styloid process occurs at an average of 9 years. In parallel with the ossification of the head of the ulna, the degree of ossification of the carpal bones increases, up to complete ossification, which occurs by the age of 10 years. Cartilaginous structure by the end of the considered age period retain: the pisiform bone of the wrist, a small part of the head of the ulna, the sesamoid bone of the first metacarpophalangeal joint, and the metaepiphyseal growth zones of the short tubular bones of the hand and bones of the forearm.

At the age of 10, the center of ossification of the pisiform bone of the wrist appears.

At this age, it is possible to analyze all radiological parameters anatomical structure wrist joint and hand (Fig. 19.48).

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Introduction

Causes of complaints and ways to solve them. Often, after a PVC profile window is installed, its happy owners forget that translucent structures require special attention and care. Regular window care includes timely cleaning of dust and lubrication of fittings with special oil. But sometimes situations arise in which it is necessary to call a service representative (hereinafter - SS). These reasons can be divided into two groups: errors made by installers when installing windows and errors in assembling windows in production - all this comes down to one denominator - the human factor. To exclude it and there are service departments (either from the manufacturer, or independent organizations). The reasons why you need to call a service representative are discussed below.

Blowing around the perimeter of the window sash

Freezing of the window block along the perimeter of the sash in winter, icing of the hinges and accumulation of condensate, and in some cases ice on the window sill (at the junction of the window sill and the window frame. The reason for this is usually the incorrect installation of the “rubber” seal, i.e. the seal is installed with a large overlap on the perimeter of the frame or sash - excessive length, or vice versa strongly stretched - insufficient length.In both cases, the geometry of the section of the sealing profile is violated - which adversely affects the functioning of the window as a whole.

If the window is under warranty - feel free to call the manufacturer of your window, they should help, unless of course this manufacturer values ​​\u200b\u200bits reputation. What to do if the window is no longer under warranty, you ask, there is only one way out - call the representative of the SS and he will at least offer you two options. In the case of an excessive length of the seal (the seal goes in waves along the entire length - as shown in the photo on the right), the problem is solved simply - the SS representative will shorten the length of the seal without any problems. In the second case, insufficient length, the CC representative will have to select the "rubber" for your window, and this is an additional cost and waiting time. There are a great many options for seals for PVC windows (photo below).

Don't forget to accept the work and check everything.

Hardware adjustment

Adjustment of fittings is necessary in several cases:

a) The sash sagged (violation of the geometry) - the unhindered movement of the sash when opening or tilting is disturbed (the sash clings at the bottom when opening / closing).

b) Blowing along the perimeter of the sash to a small extent - not critical, but there is.

Consider the option "a) the sash sagged":

1) Incorrect installation of a double-glazed window in the sash: over time, experiencing dynamic loads, the sash sags, because double-glazed window is not installed technological scheme PVC profile manufacturer. When installing it, an employee of a window company, for one reason or another, did not install straightening plates around the perimeter of the double-glazed window, giving the correct geometry to the window sash (the reason for this is the human factor, and the result is marriage). In this situation, rarely when adjusting the fittings will help, the most ideal option is to “stretch” the double-glazed window in the window sash according to the technology. In this case, the call and work of the CC representative are carried out at the expense of the manufacturer of your window, even if it is already in post-warranty service.

2) The sash sags due to frequent use (no one has canceled the influence of the laws of physics). When the sash sags, friction of the sash against the window frame or strikers (metal fittings installed on the window frame) is felt. With dynamic loads acting on the sash, the weight of the sash does its job - as a result, it sags. In this case, you can try to adjust the window yourself, but it is better to call a CC representative who will accurately determine the cause and make the necessary adjustments to the fittings with a special tool (as a rule, this is a hinge group: upper and lower hinges).

Option "b) blowing along the perimeter of the sash to a small extent" - in this case, you can not do without a representative of the SS, because he knows the true reason for blowing around the perimeter of the sash - a weak pressing of the sash to the frame. The sash pressure is adjusted by turning the trunnions (sash locking elements: cylindrical or mushroom-shaped). Turning the trunnions to "+" or "-" provides maximum or minimum pressure, respectively (winter or summer version).

Problems associated with double-glazed windows:

a) Moisture inside the double-glazed window; b) Fogging and copious amounts of condensate on the inner glass (weeping windows); c) Double-glazed windows burst. So, let's consider each option separately: a) Condensation accumulates inside the double-glazed window - a manufacturing defect, the manufacturing technology of the double-glazed window is broken or the manufacturer uses low-quality materials, as a result of which the tightness of the double-glazed window is broken. Several reasons for the depressurization of a double-glazed window: a violation of the manufacturing technology of window blocks in production - there are no drainage channels in the frame / sash of the window block, or these channels are produced of poor quality - blunt cutters, making technological holes in PVC profiles, leave hard-to-remove chips, which entails difficult removal of moisture, and in the cold season - the formation of ice inside the window block. freezing of the window block is a consequence of improper installation. For example: the window frame along the perimeter is fixed to the opening with frame anchors, which create numerous “cold bridges”, freezing occurs along the anchor heads, which contributes to the formation of ice in the window unit (PVC profile chambers and inter-seam gaps).

The consequence is that the constantly accumulating moisture under the double-glazed window grows and begins to put pressure on the double-glazed window.

The result - either the double-glazed window bursts (glasses burst), or the glasses begin to separate from the external sealant - the double-glazed window is depressurized.

The way out is to replace the double-glazed window at the expense of the manufacturer and eliminate the shortcomings made in the manufacture of the window unit.

B) Your windows began to “cry” - the effect is accompanied by the presence of an abundant amount of moisture on the inner glass of the window, usually in its lower part, and in winter, freezing of the lower part of the window along with the window sill. There are several reasons for condensation on double-glazed windows: - high humidity in the room (violation of the microclimate). - lack of passive or forced ventilation (no air convection in the room) Increased humidity in the apartment is due to the fact that all human life is associated with the release of moisture. The table shows examples of how much moisture does accumulate in the room as a result of human activity on average per day:

As can be seen from this table, our activity is accompanied by abundant release of moisture and the air in the room becomes saturated with water vapor, which contributes to the formation of condensate on the surface of the double-glazed window, or rather on its lower part. Therefore, with such a large volume of released moisture, it is necessary to get rid of it. AS? - exhaust ventilation will solve the problem of removing moist air from the room (passive or forced).

Passive ventilation - works constantly, and is a system of air exchange channels in the floor slabs of buildings.

Cleaning channels is a rather time-consuming and expensive process. Therefore, most people install forced ventilation - easier, faster and cheaper. Forced ventilation can take many forms, like a wall-mounted fan or an air inlet damper. If everything is clear with the first option, then with the second it is not entirely clear. So, what is a supply valve - this is a device that provides continuous air exchange in the room. The supply valves may look different, and the principle of their installation may differ, but they perform the same function - they provide the necessary air exchange in the room.

The supply valve maintains an optimal microclimate in the room, eliminates and prevents condensation on the double-glazed window.

The easiest way to deal with condensation on double-glazed windows is to ventilate the room several times a day during the day. You can constantly keep in mind the thought: “you need to ventilate the room” or install a supply valve and forget about the problem of fogging windows once and for all, it’s up to you. c) Double-glazed windows burst - there can be two reasons (if they were not thrown at them, for example) - poor-quality or incorrect installation of a double-glazed window in the window sash / frame and incorrect installation (not according to GOST - the secondary expansion of the mounting foam presses on the window frame and double-glazed windows, as usually burst). The first option is checked very simply: pull out the glazing bead (with a spatula or knife) and look - the double-glazed window must be equidistant from all sides of the sash profile, i.e. don't touch it. This is ensured by straightening plates - remote liners 1-4 mm thick. If there are none or they all crumbled, it means that the technology for installing a double-glazed window in the window frame / sash was violated. The second option - was described above "a) Moisture inside the double-glazed window" - installing the window with frame anchors. In order to avoid problems associated with freezing of window blocks in cold weather, it is recommended to install on anchor plates - there are no “cold bridges” in the seam gap, freezing of the window around the perimeter is excluded.

Therefore - replacement at the expense of the window manufacturer in both cases.

Aesthetics

Another reason for customers to contact the manufacturer's service department is the unaesthetic appearance of the finished product (swelling on the slopes and window sills - excess mounting foam) and the discomfort felt when using the window (tight handle, for example). All these problems are solved by service representatives or installation teams.

In order for your window to serve you for a very long time, there are service departments. Be careful and carefully accept work from PVC window manufacturers, because. it depends on your peace of mind and the microclimate in your home!

Important information: those who have read to the end all the recommended materials listed here: - gave up drugs.

Try it too! This works, regardless of the period of use and the type of drug.

Foreign and domestic films show grown men and women leaving real world forever becoming drug addicts. This layer of society destroys more than 20% of the population. Is it true that soon only people who use drugs will remain on the planet?

But the most terrible disaster is that drug addiction among young people is acquiring youthful forms. Child drug addiction and drug addiction among adolescents and young people is the scourge of society. What to do if your child seems to have become a drug addict? How to help? This article will tell about it.

Causes of child drug addiction

Drug addiction among teenagers, youth, children becomes a horror modern society. Average age of Russians who use drugs is already the threshold age of 15 years, there are cases when drugs were seen in the blood of children six years of age. Drug addiction among children is extremely destructive. Little people are introduced to drugs by parents who cannot live without a new dose.

Child drug addiction and drug addiction among young people is spreading like a plague in the 18th century, extremely quickly and reaches enormous proportions even now. Among all schoolchildren in Russia, about 20% suffer from drug addiction, and among people belonging to youth and puberty, the figure is completely terrible - about 60%.

There are practically no drug addicts with experience. The disease takes away only some miserable 4 or 5 years of life. The term can be reduced by 1-2 years, depending on when the final dose comes, which relieved the torment. Drug addict kids who leave notes for posterity describe it as the most burning pain they've ever experienced. Escape is impossible, hiding is impossible. Just sleep. Forever…

The specificity of teenage drug addiction is extremely remarkable: 70% of the surveyed drug addicts claim that they first tried drugs in crowded places. AT social institutions among young people - school, university or in entertainment establishments, for example, in discos.

Drug use increases the number of child mortality by as much as 42 times, but the most terrible are the companions of drug addiction among young people: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and HIV infection.

The increase in child drug addiction in adolescence increases the mass number of crimes: theft, robbery, murder, for the sake of a life-saving dose, which is fundamentally wrong. Drug addicts are insanely unhappy people who are able to get narcotic substance for different actions. They are not aware of what they are doing. It is important to limit children from the influence of various dealers and scammers who profit from someone else's grief.

The first call will be a change in the behavior of a teenager or child. If you have trusting relationship, and the child admits that he uses drugs, you should not scream and throw tantrums. Otherwise, it is easier for a drug addicted son or daughter to withdraw into himself, and then it will be impossible to save him or her. My son is a drug addict?! What to do?! Calm down first.

How to help? Try to come to terms with this fact, start treatment immediately, so you can extend the life of your beloved child for many years. Some forms of child and youth drug addiction are still amenable to drug addiction treatment, but it must be started at the right time.

Prevention of addiction is easier than cure!

The proverb and saying that it is easier to prevent a disease than to treat it saves many lives. Now a huge anti-drug propaganda is going on in society - a program that allows young people, children, teenagers to learn the most unpleasant details about drugs.

This is a way to see the other side of life not in pictures, but with your own eyes, attending special drug treatment seminars and forums where teenagers come - drug addicts who no longer want to be drug addicts, but are still deeply ill and therefore remain so. True stories about how drug addiction develops among young people, how they got confused and embarked on the wrong path, allow the younger generation to rethink their priorities and never pick up a deadly syringe or pill.

Why do children become drug addicts? First you need to find out the reasons for drug addiction in adolescents, due to which small man can become an addict

1. Biological reason.

2. Environment and environment.

3. Vulnerability nervous system and "emptiness of the soul".

Consider the causes of drug addiction in adolescents in more detail. The first group includes children with a physical predisposition, they can take drugs unconsciously. This category also includes children born to parents of alcoholics and whose development, harmful substances clearly influenced. There is a place here for those unfortunate babies whose mothers used alcohol or drugs during pregnancy. Such a child should be protected as much as possible from the harmful influence of the media, bad companies, from an unhealthy lifestyle, reinforced by youth night parties, incomprehensible long walks in various haunts. It is possible to control at least part of teenage alcoholism, child drug addiction and drug addiction among young people, starting with your own child.

The first task will be to convince the young teenager that by preventing this behavior, you save a future life. Help! But do not put too much pressure on these children. Due to natural resistance, it can happen backlash, and the child will become an inveterate alcoholic or drug addict.

Much depends on which family a child is born. Complete absence, neglect of interests, and, conversely, excessive guardianship can make the consequences deplorable. A child left to himself is guaranteed to fall under the influence bad company, in contrast to the father and mother attentively and understanding his problems. This is how drug addiction spreads among the youth.

The development of the situation could be back side when a child is so patronized by parents that he cannot even breathe on his own without their presence. Having escaped from excessive maternal and paternal guardianship, a teenager can indulge in all serious things, and become a drug addict, a murderer, and also a thief who has tasted all the delights and joys of the free life of youth. He will be happy already knowing that control over him has been exhausted. The main task will be to maintain a balance between the two faces of this coin called "The life of your child."

Don't take too much care of him so he doesn't feel like he's under constant scrutiny, but don't leave him alone thinking he's an adult either. Addiction among young people is highly variable and can depend on one person's decision to become an addict.

It is worth hugging him or asking about what the problems are. They are always there. Feel free to inquire about the affairs of the child. Why was he suddenly sad? The most insignificant situation can push to drugs or alcohol, and then children's alcoholism and drug addiction no longer bypass the child, having collapsed with two diagnoses at once.

Pay attention to friends, to school, to the place where he spends his free hours during a walk. The best option would be to find a section or circle of interests where, under the guidance of an experienced teacher-teacher, your child is unlikely to think about "deadly" pranks, and thus minimize the statistics of drug addiction among children, adolescents and young people.

The last, extremely important point in education is to monitor the fluctuations of the young nervous system. Remember, children become drug addicts unconsciously, so drug addiction in adolescence is an intractable problem. A child or teenager is an unformed person who is constantly rethinking his personality under the influence of various internal and external factors. And, if during such a period the child sees complete parental neglect or, conversely, excessive correction and an indication of shortcomings, then huge spiritual emptiness leading to a society of youth that will understand it.

Obviously, in the problem of child drug addiction and drug addiction in adolescence, not only the child is to blame, but also parents who do not take too much Active participation in the life of a young person.

Signs of drug addiction in a child and methods of treatment

Peculiarities of child, adolescent and drug addiction among young people is that it cannot be hidden from the very beginning, therefore it is easiest to detect it on early stage when the first signs appear deviant behavior The child has.

These signs can be identified in the course of communication with a teenager, as well as with close monitoring of the daily routine, routine and relationships with peers. Watch him throughout the day. You may notice the following signs of addiction in teenagers:

1. Sudden mood swings

Such fluctuations, as a rule, are not connected with the real life situation. For example, he may suddenly laugh, and after a second, cry. Schizophrenic delusions may appear when the child begins to be frightened of his own shadow or talk to himself. In especially difficult and advanced cases drug addiction among children and adolescents appear hallucinations.

2. Sleep disturbance

An important symptom in this problem is a violation of the rhythm of sleep, which, as a rule, is developed individually in a child. A child can sleep all day, and at night be alert and energetic and take on a variety of things. He may constantly listen to music, completely not understand what you are saying to him, or fall and fall asleep. If you notice such oddities in your child's behavior, then try to gently ask him about the reasons for this behavior. Maybe it's not drugs, but complex test for which he had been preparing all night.

3. Malnutrition

Perhaps the most important criterion by which you can recognize a sick person. If the child completely refuses to eat, then he either big problems with digestion, or he has long been sliding down the smooth path of drugs.

Watch him and find out what he absorbs per day, whether these products are harmful or, on the contrary, they practically do not exist. The other extreme may persist - a wild appetite, accompanied by aggression when you select too much food. If these signs are present in your child, then you should immediately call for help from specialist narcologists.

In medical practice, there are physiological signs of child drug addiction and drug addiction in adolescents:

Too cloudy, reddened eyes;

Incoherent, slow speech;

Frequent cough;

Sharp weight loss;

Impaired coordination of movements.

Features of teenage drug addiction are such that among behavioral factors can be:

Lethargy or excitement without objective reasons;

school truancy;

Frequent being late home;

Abrupt change appearance, gravitation towards slovenliness;

Unwillingness to communicate with their friends, self-isolation;

The most striking manifestations of behavioral deviation are frequent requests for a large amount of money.

And finally, you can, unfortunately, find visible signs of drug use: injection marks on the hands, syringes, vials, capsules, tablets and powders that your child keeps in his room.

The only method of treating child, adolescent and drug addiction among young people today is medication, isolation treatment of a child or adolescent drug addict. He can be helped by specialists in narcology, who must find out at what stage the disease is, prescribe an appropriate course of medication that slows down the destructive effect of drugs on the body.

Remember, the degradation of the child's personality has already begun, you need to help the child realize the seriousness of the whole situation in a timely manner. You must convince your daughter or son who is a drug addict that he is terminally ill, and if right now he does not start to trust you and give up addiction, he will no longer be able to be a full-fledged member of society and will leave it forever.

Unfortunately, the specificity of teenage drug addiction is such that from the moment a child uses drugs, childhood is over, but you can save this fragile youth, undestroyed to the end.

How to help? Post-rehabilitation of such a child who drug treatment, should be associated with health and education centers, where he will meet with the same children who have overcome the terrible habit of child drug addiction.

If he wants to become a volunteer and take part in such actions as "Children against drugs", "World against drugs", in the World Day against AIDS and HIV infection, then this will be the most the best move the path to recovery and return to an extraordinary existence is to be a healthy person.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

REGIONAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

NOVOSIBIRSK PEDAGOGICAL COLLEGE

No. 1 IM. A.S. MAKARENKO

ESSAY

BY GEOGRAPHY

Topic: Environmental problem, causes

and possible solutions

CHUKAEV LILY VIKTOROVNA

SPECIALTY 050704

PRESCHOOL EDUCATION

COURSE II GROUP 201

FORM OF TRAINING CORRESPONDENCE

Introduction

Our city is not so big and all the natural processes taking place on it are closely interconnected. The destruction of forests leads to a reduction in natural resources in the city of Novosibirsk, emissions chemical substances can cause skin cancer in humans, the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in one place accelerates climate change as a whole.

Economic and environmental ties are rapidly developing and are manifested in: 1. Strengthening economic dependence. Until recently, human activity and its consequences were clearly distinguished.

Then the existing boundaries began to disappear. The industrial revolution and the scientific and technological revolution opened the way for the formation of a field for the movement of goods, labor and capital. 2. Increasing pressure on nature due to population growth.

Noting the positive results of social economic development. It can be stated that infant mortality has decreased; life expectancy has increased (from an average of 60 years to 62); Food growth has outpaced population growth. Advances in medicine have rid people of some diseases and given relief from others. AT agriculture the "Green Revolution" took place - grain production increased 2.6 times, which made it possible to increase individual consumption by 25 - 40%.

The result of all these achievements was the explosive growth of the city's population, which by 2010 will reach about 3,000 thousand people living in Novosibirsk.

The city of Novosibirsk is facing serious environmental problems that make it necessary to pay attention to the merciless exploitation of natural resources.

As a result, increased exploitation of natural resources, the export of which is an important factor in the economy. Novosibirsk City Committee for Environmental Protection and natural resources, limited measures to protect environment and taking into account environmental development planning by compiling an environmental review of the city of Novosibirsk in 2005.

Novosibirsk, a city of the 20th century, has grown rapidly, rapidly, to match the century technical progress. It owes its birth to the Trans-Siberian Railway, which determined the city's place at the intersection with the great Siberian river Ob.

Location in the center of the triangle formed by major cities Western Siberia of that time, at the crossroads of the river and land roads, later recorded in the coat of arms of the city, determined many of the advantages of the metropolis, which arose in the shortest historical period.

Novosibirsk is one of the largest municipalities in Russian Federation, the center of the Novosibirsk region and the Siberian Federal District, a large industrial, transport, scientific and cultural center.

The population (as of 01.01.2006) is 1379 thousand people, and within the Novosibirsk agglomeration, which includes satellite settlements, the population is more than 2 million people. The area of ​​the city - 504.61 sq. km. (taking into account the recently included working settlement of Pashino).

In the structure of the urban area, 34.2% is occupied by a residential area, 12.6% - by production, 37.8% - by landscape and recreational areas (including garden plots). 8.5% - water bodies, 6.9% - others, including landfills and cemeteries. At the same time, 28.6% - the territory of the city is occupied by production and storage facilities.

Fig.1. Structure of urban areas

City population

Districts	Population, thousand people	Share of population, %	Square, sq. km.	Density, people / sq. km.
Dzerzhinsky
Railway
Zaeltsovsky
Kalininsky
Kirovsky
Leninist
October
Pervomaisky
Soviet
Central
TOTAL	1397,00	100,00	504,6	33097,09

Rice. 2. Administrative division cities

The city is divided into 10 administrative districts. The average estimated population density of Novosibirsk in 2001 was 2786 people per square kilometer, as of 01.01.2006 - 2768 people. At the same time, the territory of the city is populated unevenly.

It is possible to form 4 groups of districts according to the level of population. The most densely populated historical center of the city: Central and Zheleznodorozhny districts. The second group includes the eastern districts of the city: Kalininsky, with the village of Pashino included in it, and Dzerzhinsky. In the left bank, as well as in the Oktyabrsky district, part of which is also located in the historical center of the city, the population density is close to the average for the city. The Zaeltsovsky, Sovetsky and Pervomaisky districts are less densely populated, a significant part of the territory of which is occupied by forests.

This is clearly seen in the diagram (see below).

Territory Zaeltsovsky district began to be built at the beginning of the last century. Currently, the district is located along the banks of the 1st and 2nd Eltsovka rivers, from the south it is limited by an embankment railway, in the north adjoins Zaeltsovsky boron, the basis of the industrial potential of the region is an instrument-making plant, an electric vacuum plant, electronic industry enterprises, a meat-packing plant, a pharmaceutical factory and other enterprises.

Kalininsky district located in the northeastern part of the city. In the south, the border runs along the West Siberian Railway. In the east and north, to the outskirts of the district, the borders of the Novosibirsk rural district. Small rivers 1st and 2nd Eltsovka cross in the southwestern direction of the region.

Leninsky district - the largest in Novosibirsk in terms of population, area, industrial potential: this is the area of ​​\u200b\u200bfactories, thermal power plants, bases river fleet and higher educational institutions.

Railway area refers to the old part of the urban development of Novosibirsk. Currently, the district accounts for about 2% of the urban area. The border in the north runs along the valley of the rivers 1-I Eltsovka. In the south of the territory of the district, it is adjacent to the embankment of the railway bridge across the Ob River; from west to east from the banks of the Ob River to the border with the Central District along Sovetskaya Street. The main industrial facility that determines the profile of the region is the Novosibirsk railway junction. The river port, located in this area, serves the enterprises of Novosibirsk, sends goods to the Far North to oil and gas producers in Western Siberia.

Story Central region This is also the history of Novosibirsk. The first residential buildings appeared in 1893 in connection with the construction of a railway bridge across the Ob River. The territory of the district is noticeably limited, so any new construction is carried out due to the demolition of the old residential buildings. This partly explains the absence of large factories of heavy industry here; in addition, environmentally harmful industries are being removed from the central part of the city.

Dzerzhinsky district in the south-west it is crossed by the valley of the Kamenka River, half of the channel, which is taken into the collector within the cities. Dzerzhinsky r. - a working district, with numerous industrial associations, public transport enterprises. The main part of industrial enterprises is concentrated on the territory between Dzerzhinsky Avenue and the West Siberian Railway.

Kirovsky district - this is the industrial basis of the city, unique industrial associations, wide straight highways, high-rise residential areas, and at the same time - numerous streets and alleys with private buildings.

Oktyabrsky district - these are plants, factories, motor transport enterprises, industrial bases and higher educational institutions. Evacuees at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War in Novosibirsk, equipment and workers gave rise to a non-ferrous metal plant, a chemical and pharmaceutical plant. Experimental mechanical and electromechanical plants, a poultry plant and a brick factory, a chocolate factory are also located here.

Pervomaisky district from the first days of its appearance, it lives an isolated life. It is separated from other regions by the valleys of the Ob and Inya rivers and urban forests. In its development, the district is closely tied to the railway department and large factories.

Sovietsky district today it is a whole city that was built in the name of science, with academic institutions, quarters of comfortable residential buildings, industrial enterprises, with everything that is necessary for human life.

High heat and power and water needs, a gigantic network of engineering communications, a huge public utilities, vehicles, all this has a significant impact on the urban environment and essentially determines its quality, and also causes a number of "problems". If you look at the map of the city of Novosibirsk (as well as any other large city): everything that the city has - territory, energy, people, resources, water - everything is given primarily to industry. Large enterprises are located along railway and major highways, near the Ob River, as a source of water supply and a transport artery. The zoning system of the urban area today urgently required its improvement and change of priorities, prompting the city administration to rethink approaches to ensuring the environmental safety of citizens.

Furthermore, own experience past years, the experience of solving the environmental problems of urban areas, accumulated by the world community, allow the city administration to make one of the priority tasks of improving the environmental situation. This concept includes: reduced adverse impact (primarily from thermal power and utilities) on the environment in the improvement of centralized heat supply systems for wastewater disposal, the transfer of part of the heat sources to gas, the closure of inefficient and environmentally unfavorable heat sources. In the region, reducing the harmful effects of road transport - expanding the use of environmentally friendly types of motor fuel, monitoring the technical condition of vehicles and implementing urban planning measures aimed at increasing the capacity of the street network. Improvement and landscaping of built-up areas are also needed, including the construction, reconstruction and repair of roads, and the development of a storm sewer system. As well as the cleaning and improvement of small rivers and their water protection zones and coastal protective strips, the reclamation of littered areas and the lack of measures to prevent the re-formation of unauthorized garbage dumps, the development of a system of green areas, the conservation of urban forests and the improvement of their recreational properties and, of course, the issue of environmental education, upbringing and enlightenment of the population. Environmental Problems in the Republic of Kazakhstan Coursework >> Ecology

... , caused irreplaceable... way solutions, i.e. reduce the amount of water allocated for land irrigation. 2.2 emergence and development ecological tragedies of the Aral Sea Problem ... ecological information and possibility influence acceptance environmentally important decisions ...

Environmental Problems modernity (3)

Abstract >> Ecology

Water intake - main cause exacerbations Problems fresh water. Speaking of possible development options ecological situations on... . Among these methods (or possible ways solutions Problems) can be attributed occurrence and activities different kind"green"...

Global Problems humanity (13)

Test work >> Sociology

Them causes occurrence. 2. Describe way solutions global problems... resources, fresh water; ecological problem; Problems related to outer space ... resources, scientific and technical opportunities and intellectual potential. ...

Environmental Problems RB

Abstract >> Ecology

... environmental Problems Belarus and way them solutions 2.1 Problems radionuclide contamination of regions 2.3 Problems small rivers 2.4 Problems soil erosion 3. Ecological ... reasons occurrence fires... possibility calculation by payers of amounts ecological ...

An objective prerequisite for the emergence of global problems is the internationalization economic activity. The worldwide development of labor has led to the interconnectedness of all states. Scale and degree of involvement various countries and peoples in world economic relations have acquired unprecedented proportions, which contributed to the development of local, specific problems of the development of countries and regions into the category of global ones. All this indicates the presence of objective reasons for the emergence in the modern world of such problems that affect the interests of all countries. There are contradictions on a global scale, affecting the foundations of the existence of life on earth.

The UN is calling on all countries: if we want to take the best from globalization and avoid the worst, we must learn to govern better together. These appeals could work successfully if most countries were on sufficient high level economic development, and there would not be such a significant differentiation in per capita income levels between countries. The vast inequalities in the distribution of wealth in today's world, the miserable conditions in which more than a billion people live, the prevalence of interethnic conflict in some regions of the world, and the rapid deterioration of the natural environment - all these factors combine to make the current development model unsustainable. May with with good reason to say that in order to reduce tension on a number of global problems, it is necessary to completely discard the factors of class and political confrontation social systems and groups of people, but to use the principle of spatial institutionality when considering global problems affecting the formation of the world economy.

Thus, the causes of global problems: on the one hand, are huge scale human activity, which has radically changed nature, society, the way of life of people; on the other hand, it is the inability of a person to rationally dispose of this power.

There are the following ways to solve the global problems of our time:

Preventing a world war with the use of thermo nuclear weapons and other means of mass destruction that threaten the destruction of civilization. This implies curbing the arms race, prohibiting the creation and use of weapons systems of mass destruction, human and material resources, the elimination of nuclear weapons, etc.;

Overcoming the economic and cultural inequality between the peoples inhabiting the industrialized countries of the West and East and developing countries Asia, Africa and Latin America;

Overcoming the crisis state of interaction between mankind and nature, which is characterized by catastrophic consequences in the form of unprecedented environmental pollution and depletion of natural resources. It does necessary measures aimed at economical use of natural resources and reduction of waste pollution material production soil, water and air;

Decline in population growth rates in developing countries and overcoming the demographic crisis in developed capitalist countries;

Prevention negative consequences modern scientific and technological revolution;

Overcoming the downward trend in social health, which involves the fight against alcoholism, drug addiction, cancer, AIDS, tuberculosis and other diseases.

Therefore, the priority global goals of humanity are as follows:

AT political sphere- reducing the likelihood and in the future complete exclusion military conflicts, prevention of violence in international relations;

In the economic and environmental spheres - the development and implementation of resource- and energy-saving technologies, the transition to non-traditional energy sources, the development and widespread use of environmental technologies;

AT social sphere- improving living standards, global efforts to preserve people's health, the creation of a world food supply system;

In the cultural and spiritual sphere - the restructuring of the mass moral consciousness in accordance with today's realities.

The solution of these problems is today an urgent task for all mankind. The survival of people depends on when and how they begin to be solved.

Thus, summarizing the above, we note that, global problems modernity is a collection key issues that affect the vital interests of all mankind and require coordinated international actions on the scale of the world community for their resolution.

Global problems include the problems of preventing thermonuclear war and ensuring peaceful conditions development of all peoples, overcoming the growing gap in economic level and per capita income between developed and developing countries, the problem of eradicating hunger, poverty and illiteracy in the globe, demographic and environmental problems.

A distinctive feature of modern civilization is the growth of global threats and problems. It's about about the threat of thermonuclear war, the growth of armaments, the unreasonable waste of natural resources, disease, hunger, poverty, etc.

All global problems of our time can be reduced to three main ones:

The possibility of destroying humanity in a world thermonuclear war;

Possibility of worldwide ecological catastrophe;

Spiritual and moral crisis of mankind.

It is important to note that when solving the third problem, the first two are solved almost automatically. After all, spiritually and morally developed person will never accept violence either towards another person or towards nature. Even just a cultured person does not offend others and will never throw garbage on the sidewalk. From trifles, from the wrong individual behavior of a person, global problems also grow. It can be said that global problems are rooted in the mind of a person, and until he transforms it, they will not disappear in the outside world either.