Phonetics and phonology. Supersegmental units of language
Yu.S Maslov. Introduction to linguistics. Abstract.
Introduction: what is the science of language?
Linguistics (linguistics, linguistics) is a science that studies languages (in principle, all existing, ever existing and may arise in the future), and thus human language in general.
Private linguistics deals with a single language or a group of related languages. It can be synchronic, describing the facts of the language at some point in its history, or diachronic (historical), tracing the development of the language over a certain period of time. Its variety is comparative-historical, which finds out by comparing related languages their historical past.
General linguistics deals with the general features of human language. It explores the essence and nature of language, the problem of its origin and the general laws of its development and functioning, it also develops methods for studying languages. Typological linguistics is a comparison between related and unrelated languages, aimed at clarifying the general patterns of the language. General linguistics singles out and formulates linguistic universals, that is, provisions that are valid for all languages of the world (absolute universals) or for the vast majority of languages (static universals).
Applied linguistics also solves both particular problems relating to one language and problems that are fundamentally applicable to the material of any language.
Linguistics is associated with many sciences: philosophy, sociology, history, ethnography, logic, psychology, higher physiology nervous activity, anthropology, literary criticism + poetics + folkloristics - philology, acoustics, anatomy and physiology of the organs of speech sound production, pedagogy, methodology, medicine, mathematical logic, statistics, information theory, cybernetics.
New disciplines at the intersection of traditional fields of knowledge: sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics, etc.
Chapter 1. Essence of language: its social functions and its internal structure.
1. Language is the most important means of human communication, an instrument for the formation and expression of thought.
Communication is the transfer of some information, intentionally or involuntarily sent by the sender and perceived by the recipient. Two plans: expression (method, form of expression), content (behind the expression).
In animals, communication does not go beyond the "first signaling system". Human communication is a qualitatively more complex phenomenon. Linguistic communication constitutes "the second signal system of reality" (according to I.P. Pavlov). Language communication is always based on the assimilation of a given language by the participants of communication on the acquired knowledge. Linguistic communication is the communication of some facts and the emotions associated with them, as well as the exchange of thoughts about these facts.
Non-verbal communication people - involuntary manifestations of emotions in the form of laughter, crying, some body movements, and then - already a conscious imitation of such manifestations and conditional facial expressions and gestures (this also includes timbre, tempo, fluency of speech, trembling in the voice). Nonlinguistic forms of communication are genetically older than spoken language.
Writing becomes the second form of language, a special kind of linguistic communication that transcends space and time. A specific offshoot of language (and writing) are man-made artificial communication systems - various kinds of signaling, codes and ciphers, symbolic languages of science, programming languages, manual languages for the deaf and dumb - all this is a translation into another matter of units of linguistic (and written) language. Art occupies a special place.
Function - work performed, purpose, role. Language features:
Communicative Language is a tool for the exchange of thoughts. A number of its private functions:
Ascertaining - a neutral statement of fact
Interrogative - inquiry about a fact
Appellative - a call, an incentive to action
Expressive - express the personality of the speaker, his moods and emotions and
Contact-establishing - creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors
Metalinguistic - interpretation of linguistic facts
Aesthetic - aesthetic impact
Indicator of belonging to a certain group of people
Thought-forming- the formation of thoughts. (Wilhelm Humboldt: “language is the forming organ of thought”)
The statement is usually multifunctional.
Human language exists in the form of separate languages. Each individual language exists in the minds of its speakers. The term "mother tongue" = "acquired in early childhood". Language exists as a living language insofar as it functions (in speech, in utterances, in speech acts).
The distinction between the concepts of "language" and "speech" (F. De Saussure, then Shcherba): speech (la parole) - oral + written + in broad sense"inner speech". A speech act is a two-way process, speaking and auditory perception and understanding of what is heard proceeding in parallel and simultaneously. In written communication - writing and reading (visual perception and understanding) of what is written. A speech act is a manifestation of speech activity. In a speech act, a text is created: any “speech work” created by someone of any length. In inner speech - "inner text".
The statement will be correctly understood by the addressee, because:
1) it is built from elements whose shape and meaning are known to the addressee
2) these elements are connected into a meaningful whole according to certain rules known to the interlocutor / reader.
The elements of an utterance and the rules for their connection are the language. The language ("la langue") of a collective is a system of elements at the disposal of this collective - units of different tiers - plus a system of rules for the functioning of these units, which is the same for all who use this language. The system of units is the inventory of the language; a system of rules for the functioning of units, i.e. rules for generating a meaningful statement - the grammar of this language.
The task of the linguist- to understand the chaos of linguistic facts, which is speech, to identify and take into account all the elements of the inventory, all the existing rules of grammar and accurately describe them.
Science in general goes from a phenomenon to internal patterns and connections (from a direct given to an essence). Living language: given texts (oral and written), speech acts of native speakers, the opportunity to experiment (create something in the studied language and check the acceptability and understandability of what was created). Dead language: only limited written texts are given.
Each person learns his native language, extracting it from speech intuitively. An important role is played by the purposeful communication of inventory elements at the later stages of grammar rules. But basically, knowledge of the native language is obtained by the individual from his own speech experience. Everything that is repeated is generalized and put into a system, then it is used in new statements. Thus, the “raw” speech experience of an individual turns into his “organized” speech experience, and an almost automatic mechanism for mastering the native language and the “controller” of this mechanism - linguistic instinct or “language competence” are developed in the human mind.
Speech is a form of the existence of language. Language functions and is "immediately given" in speech. In abstraction from speech, speech acts and texts, language is an abstract entity.
The raven flies to the raven, the raven cries to the raven. Speech: “speech words” / “word usage” / “word instances”: 7. Language: Word forms: 5. Word form is an abstraction of the “first degree”. Lexeme, abstraction of the second degree: 4. Lexeme is an abstract unit in the system of a given language. The distinction between instance, variant, invariant is also carried out in relation to other elements of the language.
Psycholinguistics is a borderline discipline that developed at the intersection of linguistics and psychology. Studies the mental patterns of the generation and perception of speech utterances; mechanisms that manage these processes and ensure language proficiency and mastery; in general, the language ability of a person in the broad context of his mental and intellectual abilities.
Being a tool for fixing, transmitting and storing information, language is closely connected with thinking, with all the spiritual activities of people aimed at understanding the objectively existing world, at its display (modeling) in the human mind.
Non-verbal thinking It is carried out with the help of visually sensual images that arise as a result of the perception of impressions of reality and then stored by memory and recreated by the imagination. In animals - the correct orientation in the situation and the adoption of expedient thinking. For people - solving creative problems of a technical nature (technical or engineering thinking); thinking of a chess player; visual-figurative thinking in the work of painters, sculptors, composers. It does not proceed in the forms of internal and external speech.
verbal thinking operates with concepts fixed in words, judgments, conclusions, analyzes and generalizes, builds hypotheses and theories. It proceeds in the forms established in the language, that is, it is carried out in the processes of internal or (when thinking aloud) external speech. The most important.
So, human thinking is multicomponent, it is a complex set of various types mental activity, gradually replacing each other and often acting in synthesis.
The peculiarity of the human brain is in functional asymmetry, that is, in a certain specialization of the functions of the left and right hemispheres.
Most people in left hemisphere there are zones of generation and perception of speech, Brok's and Vernicke's zones, thus the left hemisphere is speech, and thus usually dominant; it is responsible for analytical, abstract thinking. With aphasias (speech disorders), speech loses grammatical correctness and fluency.
Right hemisphere associated with visual-figurative thinking, with visual, spatial, sound or other images, in the field of language - with the objective meanings of words. It is characterized by an undivided, but on the other hand, a more holistic perception of the world and is a source of intuition. With aphasia of the right hemisphere, speech becomes meaningless.
Both hemispheres work in continuous contact with each other, providing all human behavior, his thinking and speech.
Language is connected to everything mental activity man, not only with thought, but also with feeling and will.
Although everything in speech and language is subordinated to the task of expressing semantic content and thus inspired by thought, some aspects in the structure of language and in the processes of speech activity are connected with the thought formulated in the utterance only very indirectly. Sometimes the linguistic form reflects the concepts that have gone into the past - this is a linguistic tradition (for example, the sun has risen, the village; the belonging of a unit to a certain grammatical class, in which the modern native speaker does not see the point).
Language is always the property of the collective. Most often, a group of people who speak the same language (linguistic community) is an ethnic group. The languages of some ethnic groups are also used as a means of interethnic communication. Sometimes two (or more) are used in parallel in one ethnic group, the spheres of their use are usually distinguished. Sometimes one language serves several different peoples as the main means of communication. AT special occasions there are such languages that are not basic (native) for anyone and serve only for interethnic communication.
Literary language<->local dialects, professional and other dialects and group differences in the language studies dialectology, and the whole set of issues related to the impact of society on the language and the linguistic situations that develop in society - sociolinguistics.
More fractional dialects are called dialects. They are united by linguists into groups called adverbs. The dialectologist deals not so much with the "boundaries of dialects" as with the boundaries of individual dialectal phenomena - isoglosses. Mapping the phenomena presented in dialects is the task of dialectography (linguistic geography), + deals with the historical interpretation of isoglosses.
Now the dialects are gradually becoming obsolete. A significant part of the speakers of the dialect is characterized by "bilingualism": the use of their native dialect or literary language depending on the situation -> "semi-dialects".
In some countries, literary-dialect "bilingualism" covers almost the entire population.
Literary language is a variant of the national language, understood as exemplary. Functions in written (codified) and oral (regulated) forms in certain cases. The presence of consciously applied rules, that is, norms. The least regulated is the everyday colloquial variety of the language. Outside of codification lies vernacular (not included in the norm as "coarse" or neoplasms).
Literary language has variants (e.g. British and American standard English; + features in Australian, New Zealand, South African English; Spanish in Spain and Latin America; Portuguese in Portugal and Brazil, ..).
Professional differentiation of society: every branch of production and science needs terminology; in addition to official terms, there is professional slang in every industry; in scientific and technical literature there are features in the use of grammatical forms; - professional sublanguages. Close to professional and craft argots are the argots of collectives united by common interests. So, we can talk about a kind of multilingualism.
In some societies, class, estate and caste argots arise. A special phenomenon is the slang of the declassed elements of society: "thieves' jargon." This and some other argots are a kind of secret languages: in them important role plays the desire to encrypt, to make the transmitted message incomprehensible to outsiders.
So, in the national language, differentiation is observed, reflecting the complexity of the internal division of the corresponding language community. The family has microscopic features of language; the individual is also - "idiolect" - an individual version of the language. All these concepts do not cancel the social nature of the language. The language of the collective is the common, existing in the individual.
Stylistics deals with the difference between linguistic styles. Functional-stylistic differences = language styles:
Neutral style; High style; Popular science; Newspaper and journalistic; Official business; Conversational style; Slang; Poetic style; Folk poetic style.
Pronunciation: full style, colloquial style.
Styles usually interact together. Stylistic differences are due to the variety of situations and forms of language use in society. The stylistic richness and diversity of the language speaks of the complexity and richness of the spiritual life of the people.
2. Language is a kind of sign system.
The exchange of information in human society is based on the principle: the addressee of the message is presented with substitute realities that evoke in the mind an image, idea or concept of these realities. A sign situation is present whenever something stands in place of something else. We are interested in the signs used in the process of human information exchange, carried out by its participants consciously, deliberately and purposefully. Sign: something (some B) is deliberately put by someone instead of something else (instead of A) in order to inform someone about this A.
All systems of means used by a person to exchange information are semiotic, that is, systems of signs and rules for their use. science studying sign systems, is called semiotics, or semiology. Language is the most complex of all sign systems. On any system:
1. All signs have a material, sensually perceived form, a signifier, an exponent of a sign
2. A material object is an exponent of a sign only if the idea, meaning, content of the sign is associated with this object/event in the minds of those who communicate.
3. The sign is opposed to other signs within the given system. Sensual distinguishability of exhibitors and opposite (difference in the content of signs): differential features. The opposition of signs is manifested in the case of a zero exponent, in the case when the material, sensually perceived absence of something serves as an exponent of a sign, since this absence is opposed to the presence of an object/event as an exponent of another sign.
4. The connection between the exhibitor and the content of the sign is conditional, based on a conscious agreement. In other cases, it is motivated (the exponent has similarities with the signifier).
A separate utterance is the basic unit of verbal communication. The expression is twofold. The statement is divided into sentences or consists of one sentence.
The word is an indefinite unit in terms of structure, formal features, semantic content. Significant (full-valued) and auxiliary (formal) words. Minimum meaningful unit: in speech - morph; in the language system - a morpheme. Morph and morpheme are related as an instance of a word in a text and a word-lexeme. All significant elements in the text are two-dimensional, they are two-sided units.
There are also one-sided units in speech and language. Morph can be divided into separate sounds, or backgrounds: units that are distinguished in terms of expression and are indirectly related to the content. Phonemes correspond to the backgrounds distinguished in the flow of speech in the language system. Backgrounds are specific instances of phonemes. There are languages in which not phonemes are distinguished, but syllabophonemes or slogophonemes. Non-linear units are also observed in the language - phenomena that are not isolated in the form of segments of the speech chain (stress,.).
Only meaningful, two-sided units, a word (lexeme) and a morpheme are considered linguistic signs. The meaning expressed by a word or morpheme is the content of the corresponding sign. The material exponent of a sign is the sound (plan of expression) of a word or morpheme. Sometimes the exponent can be null (no ending). Higher linguistic unit- suggestion - combination linguistic signs, created according to a certain model in the process of generating an utterance.
Phonemes serve as building material for signs, more precisely, for exponents of signs. Louis Hjelmslev: phonemes are figures of the plane of expression; figures from which signs are built.
multi-tiered language structure provides significant savings in language means when expressing a variety of mental content. Hjelmslev: language is organized in such a way that with the help of a handful of figures and thanks to their ever new arrangements, a legion of signs can be built.
There are two types of relations between linguistic units of the same level:
1) paradigmatic - mutual opposition in the language system between units of the same level, related in meaning. Paradigmatic series (paradigms) are based on these relations.
2) Syntagmatic - units of the same level are connected to each other in the process of speech or as part of units of more high level: the fact of compatibility; semantic relations between units that are jointly present in the speech chain (their influence on each other).
Similarities and differences between language and artificial sign systems. Similarities:
1. exhibitors are material
3. opposition of signs; zero exponent.
4. The connection between the exhibitor and the content may be conditional; motivated. But most linguistic signs are characterized by a traditional connection between the exponent and the content (descriptive motivation).
BUT: language is a universal sign system, serves a person in all spheres of life, can express any content, the ability of linguistic signs to combine and the ability to receive new meanings without losing the old ones - ambiguity; artificial sign systems - special, with narrow tasks, serve a person only in certain areas, the number of contents is limited, signs are not combined/combined within strictly limited limits (standard complex signs).
Language is a system that is much more complex in terms of its internal structure: a complete message is rarely transmitted by one complete linguistic sign. Usually a message is a combination of characters, free and not pre-existing. A linguistic sign is only a component of an utterance. A linguistic sign can be simple (a morpheme) or complex (a polymorphemic word, a stable combination of words like a white mushroom). Some linguistic signs are empty, do not denote any extralinguistic realities - they perform service functions (for example, the endings of adjectives). The complexity of the language also appears in the fact that the language has not only a tier that lies above the sign (the tier of sentences and free phrases), but also a tier that lies below the sign, a tier of figures from which the sign exponents are built.
There is a lot of illogicality in every language: there is no symmetry between the plane of content and the plane of expression. In all languages, there are many signs with completely coinciding exponents (homonyms), they should be distinguished from polysemy when the meanings of the sign are related. Sometimes the language allows different interpretations of the same combination of signs. There are signs that completely coincide in content - absolute synonyms. With all the economy of its structure, the language sometimes turns out to be very wasteful and within the same message expresses the same message several times. But such redundancy creates a margin of safety, the message will be received and correctly understood even with interference. Also, the meaning of linguistic signs, in contrast to the signs of artificial systems, often includes an emotional moment.
Chapter 2. Phonetics and phonology.
1. Introductory remarks.
Phonetics is the science of the sound material of a language, the use of this material in meaningful units of language and speech, the historical changes in this material and the methods of its use. Sounds and other units, as well as stress and intonation, are studied:
1) in terms of physical (acoustic) features
2) in the biological aspect
3) the functional aspect (use in the language) - stood out in a separate area, phonology, but, in general, all three aspects of the study of sound units and sound phenomena of the language are connected, therefore phonetics is considered as a single science, and phonology is its integral part and organizing core.
Phonetics is of great practical importance: the method of teaching writing and reading, pronunciation, the creation of a rational writing system for non-written languages, the treatment of speech defects, etc .; dialogue between man and machine.
Phonetics is of great fundamental importance for all branches of linguistics and for some related sciences. Phonetics deals with a certain physical given, so it has advanced along the path of becoming an exact science. Phonetics (and phonology) has the clearest methods of linguistic research; within linguistics, it represents a model and a school for the exact study of the facts of a language.
When presenting issues of phonetics, one has to use transcription, since in ordinary writing there is no one-to-one correspondence between sound and letter. Shcherba's transcription basis: letters of the Latin alphabet, characters from the Greek, Russian and other alphabets, combined characters, diacritics (distinctive signs) are added to the Latin characters.
2. Acoustic aspect in the study of language sounds.
Each sound is a physical phenomenon - an oscillatory movement transmitted through an elastic medium and perceived by human hearing. It is characterized by physical (acoustic) properties.
Fluctuations can be:
Uniform, then the sound is called a tone. Tones arise as a result of vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx, as well as response vibrations of air in the supraglottic cavities. Vowels.
Uneven, then it's noise. Noises arise as a result of overcoming obstacles in the speech channel by the air jet. Silent consonants.
Sonants - tone prevails over noise, voiced noisy - noise prevails over tone.
Sounds are characterized by a height that depends on the frequency of vibrations (the more vibrational movements per unit time, the higher the sound); force (intensity), depending on the amplitude of the oscillation; longitude (duration). The most important for the language is the difference in the timbre of sounds, that is, their specific coloring.
The specific timbre of each sound is created by resonant characteristics - additional tones that are superimposed on the main tone and noise. Resonance phenomenon: vibrations of a sounding body cause response vibrations of another body or air located in a closed space. In the formation of speech sounds, the role of a resonator is played by the cavities of the mouth, nose and pharynx, and due to the various movements of the speech organs, the shape and volume of the resonator, and partly the degree of elasticity of its walls, change, which leads to the appearance of resonator tones of different height and intensity.
The currently used electroacoustic methods for studying sounds make it possible to decompose a complex sound into its constituent tones, that is, to obtain its spectrum, highlighting in it separate bands of frequency concentration, formants.
3. The biological aspect in the study of the sounds of a language.
Consideration of the sounds of language and speech from the point of view of the processes occurring in the body during the pronunciation of these sounds and their perception constitutes the content of the biological aspect in the study of sounds. The biological aspect is subdivided into pronunciation and perceptual.
pronunciation . In order for a person to utter a speech sound, it is necessary: 1) an impulse from the brain; 2) transmission of an impulse along the nerves to the organs that carry out the given command; 3) the complex work of the respiratory apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea), diaphragm and the entire chest (an air stream is required); 4) the complex work of the pronunciation organs in the narrow sense - the vocal cords, tongue, lips, palatine curtain, pharyngeal walls, movements of the lower jaw. The totality of the work of the respiratory apparatus and the movements of the pronunciation organs, necessary for pronouncing the corresponding sound, is called the articulation of this sound.
Most sounds are pronounced on the exhale; perhaps their pronunciation on inspiration; in a number of languages there are click consonants (like ts-ts-ts in the interjection of regret).
Pronunciation organs: active (perform the movements necessary to pronounce the sound); passive (a fulcrum for an active organ).
1. the vocal cords, stretching due to the movement of the muscles and cartilage of the larynx like strings, come with the passage of air through the glottis into an oscillatory movement that creates a musical tone - a voice. The voice is used in the formation of vowels, sonants, voiced noisy consonants. Sounds without voice are deaf.
2. The supraglottic cavities, that is, the pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity, nasal cavity, perform the function of a movable resonator that creates resonant tones. + when all consonants are formed, they create an obstacle to the path of the air stream: a bow / gap.
3. The tongue can be pulled back - back vowels; lean forward - front vowels; when the tongue moves upwards, mixed vowels are pronounced. The degree of elevation of the tongue: the smallest (-> wide passage) - a; the greatest degree of rise - y, s, and.
When pronouncing lingual consonants - posterior lingual, middle lingual, anterior lingual - the tongue in its various parts approaches the passive organs: palate, alveoli, back wall of the upper teeth, forming either a bow or a gap. The anterior lingual bow can be higher/lower. The slot can be round/flat. It can be combined with the second focus (additional narrowing of the speech channel behind the main gap). The gap may be lateral. When pronouncing trembling, the tip of the tongue produces a special oscillatory movement.
When pronouncing consonants, the tongue performs movements that change the shape and volume of the resonator: palatalization (softening; the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate), velarization (hard consonants; raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate).
4. Lips, especially the bottom. Protruding forward and rounding, the lips lengthen overall volume resonator cavity, change its shape. This creates rounded (labialized) sounds. When pronouncing consonants, the lips create an obstacle in the path of the air stream. This is how labial-labial consonants are formed - stop and slot; labiodental - slit.
5. The palatine curtain can rise, closing the passage of the nasal cavity, and fall, opening it and connecting the nasal resonator (nasal consonants, nosalized vowels).
6. The tongue is involved in pronouncing the burry R; the back wall of the pharynx is involved in the pronunciation of pharyngeal (pharyngeal) consonants.
Taking into account the work of the pronunciation organs necessary for the pronunciation of each sound, we obtain an anatomical-physiological (or articulatory) classification of sounds.
1) vowels - mouth openers (the speech channel is free); consonants - mouth-switches (an obstruction necessarily arises in the path of the air stream -> they have a focus-place of formation). Vowels are formed by voice, but there are also deaf vowels; The voice also participates in the formation of consonants.
2) Vowels are classified according to the work of the language. The row (front, back, mixed) and the degree of elevation of the tongue (broad and narrow vowels) are taken into account. The work of the lips is also important: rounded and not rounded.
3) Consonants are more difficult to classify. According to the ratio of noise and voice, the division into sonants and noisy, the division of noisy into voiced and deaf is taken into account. The group of sonants can be considered as intermediate between vowels and noisy consonants.
4) The division of consonants according to the nature of the barrier: stop (explosive, affricates, implosive - stop before other stop), slotted, trembling.
5) Division according to the active articulating organ: labial, anterior lingual, middle lingual, posterior lingual, uvular, pharyngeal, laryngeal.
6) Some other signs: palatalization, velarization, labialization.
Mechanisms of changes that are subject to the articulation of sounds in the flow of speech:
Combinatorial (accommodation: s-r, r-s; assimilation: s-s, r-r - contact and distant; dissimilation - dissimilarity of sounds; assimilation and dissimilation act with complications or simplifications in consonant groups).
Self-positional: reduction (weakening of vowels in unstressed syllables and deafening of consonants at the end of a word before a pause). The full degree of reduction is the complete disappearance of a vowel in an unstressed syllable and even the entire syllable: 1) apOkopa - the disappearance of the final vowel or the final part of the word; 2) syncope - loss of a vowel or several sounds not at the end of a word.
Stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word before a pause is observed in many languages. The physiological basis of this phenomenon is the premature return of the vocal cords to a state of rest.
Perceptual aspect - covers the study of processes in the human body during the perception of speech sounds by hearing mechanisms and the transmission of appropriate signals to the brain.
4. Self-linguistic (functional) aspect in the study of the sounds of the language. The concept of a phoneme.
Sound - vibration of the air environment + the result of the work of the pronunciation organs + performs functions in language and speech, in this capacity it is a background in the flow of speech and a phoneme in the language system. In combination with other sounds, it acts as a material, sensually perceived means of fixing and expressing thoughts, as an integral part of the exponent of a linguistic sign. The functional or phonological aspect in the study of sounds is the "proper-linguistic".
Phonemes are the building blocks from which the exponents of meaningful units of a language are built. Phonemes must be different, distinguishable for perception: they must form different sequences for different signs so that the corresponding signs are recognized as something different. Phoneme functions: constitutive (building material); distinctive (distinguisher for exhibitors). Rarely performs both alone (one-phoneme words/morphemes).
In the articulatory-acoustic relation, the background is not delimited from the adjacent background; the flow of speech is a continuous, continuous sound. But the phoneme stands out as a certain linguistic unit, to a certain extent realized by native speakers and possessing a certain autonomy in the language system. The distinguishability of a phoneme is based on meaning. For Russian and some other languages, the origins of the distinguishability of a phoneme must be sought in the fact that, in some cases, adjacent and often closely intertwined backgrounds in the flow of speech belong to different meaningful units - to different morphemes and even different words. Examples of monomorphemic morphemes and words are illustrative: in them, a given phoneme is immediately singled out from two sides in a speech stream or as part of a particular form by certain boundaries. Phonemes are singled out by native speakers primarily because there are such meaningful units, the exponents of which consist (each) of only one phoneme.
There are more polyphonic morphemes and words in the language - two functions of a phoneme are more often realized in combinations of phonemes. But for the majority of actually occurring two-phoneme combinations, one can find examples in which the identical combination will be broken up by the boundary of some meaningful units. Of course, for the consciousness of a person who has mastered a given language, the distinguishability of phonemes is ensured by the very fact of their repeated repetition in tacts in various combinations with various other phonemes. Vowel length: some languages have two phonemes, some do not.
From the essence of the distinctive function of a phoneme, it follows that different phonemes of the same language must be heard by native speakers, that is, they must be realized by different sounds. Realizations of the same phoneme are usually different in articulation and sound, that is, one phoneme combines a number of physically different sounds - variants of the phoneme, its allophonemes (allophones). Phoneme and phoneme variant - phonemic and allophonemic (properly phonetic) transcription.
The fact of unequal value for the language of different sound differences: some are essential, relevant, others are insignificant, irrelevant. The choice of phoneme options is determined by the nature of the phonetic environment. Sounds that are allophonemes in some languages may be separate phonemes in other languages.
Mandatory phoneme options: each of them in the corresponding phonetic positions is strictly required. The main variant is the one that appears either in an isolated position or in conditions of the least dependence on the environment. All other mandatory variants of the phoneme, except for the main one, are specific: they are modifications of the main variant due to a specific position. Specific variants (positional in the broad sense) are divided into combinatorial (the impact of neighboring sounds) and positional (positional changes in articulation) in the narrow sense. There are optional options: for each position in which a given optional option is possible, another correlative with it is also possible. The choice is determined by the pronunciation habits of the native speaker and turns out to be arbitrary. Such a sound difference is phonologically insignificant, non-phonemic, intra-phonemic.
Phoneme variants are a fact of the respective language, not just a fact of speech. They are part of the norm of a given language, are included in the description of the norm of the language. Optional options - competing norms / one is normative, the other is not. The invariant (phoneme) and variants of the phoneme (allophones) refer to the language; speech includes backgrounds, that is, specific instances of sounds. The phoneme is general, its variants are special, its instances are separate, single, in which this general and special is embodied.
The distribution of any language element is its "distribution" relative to other elements, that is, the totality of all those positions and environments in which this element occurs in a given language - as opposed to where it cannot be found (for example: /u/ does not know positional restrictions; /k'/ does not occur before /ы/, before a consonant and at the end of a word;..).
Mandatory variants of one phoneme are among themselves in relation to non-overlapping (additional) distribution. These variants divide among themselves all the possible positions of a given phoneme so that each position goes to one and only one variant. As a result, the zone (area of use) of each variant does not intersect with the zone of other variants; these zones complement each other, collectively covering all cases of the use of the corresponding phoneme. It is the relations of non-overlapping distribution that determine the impossibility of opposing the obligatory variants of one phoneme to each other. The distribution of optional variants of the phoneme is different: the zones of possible use coincide. This type of distribution is free variation, or non-contrasting parallelism. Where the differences in stylistic order between optional options are a kind of stylistic distribution.
So, a working definition: a phoneme is the shortest sound unit of a given language, capable of being the only external distinguisher of morphemes and words exponents in it.
5. Differential features of the phoneme and opposition of phonemes.
The phonemes of each language form complex system oppositions (oppositions). In this system, "each phoneme is defined by what distinguishes it from other phonemes of the same language" (Shcherba). The features that ensure the distinction between phonemes are differential or distinctive features of phonemes (DP).
There are binary (binary); ternary (ternary). Group opposition vowel:consonant. DP phonemes /b/ in Russian: 1) consonant 2) labial 3) stop 4) non-nasal 5) noisy 6) voiced 7) non-palatalized. The work of identifying DP requires phonological analysis. DP characterizing a phoneme should be common to all its variants. Phoneme DP is the lowest, ultimate unit distinguished by linguistic analysis in the multi-tiered structure of the language expression plan. DPs of one phoneme are realized simultaneously. The sound realization of a phoneme may vary, but the boundaries of this sound variation are determined by the retention of a set of DPs that oppose the given phoneme to other phonemes of the same language. The constancy of the DP must be understood phonologically: the same DP in different phonemes of the same language can be realized differently from the acoustic and articulatory points of view. The DP inventory is specific to each language.
Phoneme oppositions can be classified according to various criteria. By the number of members (binary, ternary, less often with more members). Proportional (this relation is repeated in other oppositions) or isolated oppositions (proportionality is not observed). Proportional oppositions lead to a group opposition of phonemes (all voiced to all deaf), but there are group oppositions that cannot be reduced to a series of proportional ones (vowels:consonants). The division of oppositions into pure (simple) (opposite terms differ from each other in one DP) and mixed (complex) (they are more common; opposing phonemes differ in several DPs at once).
6. Alternations. Neutralization of phonemic oppositions.
The exponents of most morphemes have a variable phonemic composition (hand-a - in-hand-it, garden-s - rays-i, ...). The allophonemic composition of the exhibitor is even more variable. Mutual replacements of phonemes (or allophones) in the composition of morpheme exponents, including the replacement of a phoneme with zero sound, are called alternations, or alternations. Alternating - alternants. Alterations are usually associated with grammatical phenomena, and some receive grammatical functions. The study of alternations is included in the composition of morphonology - a special area of linguistic research, borderline between phonology and grammar.
Neutralization in the science of language is called the “removal” observed in certain conditions, the non-use of one or another opposition. A strong position is the position of maximum phonemic discrimination. Positions of neutralization (weak) - the choice of a phoneme is determined automatically: 1) voiced before voiced; 2) deaf before deaf; 3) at the end of a word before a pause, a deaf person. Weak positions can be isolated, that is, not correlated in the exponents of the same morphemes with strong positions, (1)-3)) or correlative, that is, correlated in alternation with strong positions (correlative weak: 4) before the next voiced prefix -s , -vz: shave, crazy; 5) before the next deaf person, the same prefixes in fuse, plow; 6) at the end of the word - gas and gas /s/).
Different interpretations of neutralization. Trubetskoy: the archiphoneme appears in the position of neutralization. Moscow phonological school(Reformed): the highest unit in relation to the phoneme is the hyperphoneme; appears only in an isolated weak position. In a correlative weak position, a well-defined phoneme appears, which cannot be identified by ear; phoneme recognition is carried out only in a strong position, while in a weak position there is the same phoneme that is recognized by ear in a strong position. Shcherba and co.: neutralization - the absence of the use of certain oppositions of phonemes in certain positions. The neutralization of phonemic oppositions is a direct consequence of the positional restrictions observed in the distribution of phonemes. In case of discrepancy between phonemes and phonemes in the corresponding strong positions, representatives of the Shcherba school speak of alternation. The sound should be wherever it occurs, a variant of a single phoneme (determined by the presence / absence of DP). The rules for neutralizing phonemic oppositions are different in different languages.
Phonological typology of alternations.
Phonetically conditioned allophonemic alternation (both alternants are allophonemes of one phoneme, its obligatory variants, which are in relations of additional distribution; sign ~; phonetic transcription). Many linguists are talking here not about alternation, but about the modification of the phoneme. (pogo/du/ - pogo/da/)
Historical alternation - different phonemes; phonemic transcription, infinity sign ¥. (weather-fine)
Live alternation of phonemes. Connection of alternations caused by neutralization with living phonetic patterns (weather-pogo/tka/, fish-ry/pka/, eyes-gla/sk'i/; /d~t/ /b~p/ /z~s/) .
The predictability of alternants (the ability, knowing one of them, to foresee the other) is the direction of alternation.
Allophonemic: knowing the distribution rules for the mandatory variants of a phoneme, we can predict any other for any alternant. There is no definite direction, but we will write from the main version of the phoneme, putting it to the left.
Live alternations are characterized by a clear one-sided predictability from a strong position to a weak one, that is, from a traditional alternant to a phonetically determined one. Alternations are unidirectional, strong position recorded first (eg voiced-deaf). It happens that in a language there are two different living alternations of phonemes with the same composition of alternants, but with the opposite direction: prefixes c-, from-, prepositions c, from, to, at the end of the root before the suffix -b-. (deaf-voiced before voiced: pluck-shave off, dismissed-discarded, by summer - by winter).
In historical phoneme alternations, the direction of the alternation often depends on morphological patterns, but sometimes there is no predictability at all.
Often different alternations are intertwined and layered on top of each other (book-book, book-book: book-book - alternation /g/ and w - historical (back-lingual stop with hissing) and live (voiced with deaf)). The proximity of allophonemic and living alternations is clearly manifested in cases where both are caused by an identical phonetic cause. (whether to lie down - to lie down). The closeness of the living and historical alternations of phonemes is manifested in the ability of both to spread by analogy (the historical alternation about infinity a - discards-discards, implores-begs - extends to verbs in which it was not there before - conditions-conditions-conditions, dignifies-dignifies- honors, disputes,...; a lively alternation of o - but due to the appearance of o where it was not there before: carves, paid from paying; walks, walks from walking, etc.).
7. Syllable.
The syllable in all languages of the world acts as the minimum pronunciation (articulation) unit of speech. It may consist of one/several sounds adjacent in the speech chain and in a certain way combined into some kind of indivisible (from the pronunciation point of view) whole.
Often the top, or core, of a syllable is formed by a vowel, consonants are located on the periphery. Often a syllable consists of one vowel (zero periphery). Syllables that do not contain a vowel are possible (in a fluent colloquial style of pronunciation) - here the core is syllable-forming or syllabic sonants; less common are syllable-forming noisy (shhh!). There are languages in which syllable-forming sonants are a normal occurrence in any series of words and in any style of pronunciation. A syllable can contain two or three vowels: one vowel is the core, the other / others are the periphery; peripheral vowels are called non-syllabic.
Sonority/sonority scale: wide-medium-narrow vowels-sonants-voiced fricative-voiced occlusive-deaf fricative and occlusive (from the beginning to the end of the scale, the possibility of using sounds as a core decreases, the possibility of using sounds as a periphery arises). This is the basis of the sonoristic theory of the syllable: in a syllable, a sound of relatively greater sonority is the core, sounds of lesser sonority are the periphery.
Another theory of syllable: muscular tension theory (Shcherba): general muscular tension speech apparatus(poured tension) characterizes vowels in contrast to consonants, and among consonants it is more characteristic of sonants than noisy ones. The degree of muscular tension can vary within the pronunciation of one sound, a consonant, -> closer adjacency of consonants and groups of consonants either to the next or to the previous vowel. In this theory, the syllable is considered as a segment of sound, pronounced by one impulse of the muscular tension of the pronunciation apparatus. The unity of the impulse explains the indivisibility of the syllable from the pronunciation point of view.
So, the syllabic structure of speech is based on a kind of pulsation, on successive moments of increase and decrease in muscle tension, and often in parallel there is also an increase and decrease in sonority.
Each language has its own typical syllable patterns and characteristic restrictions on the use of any sounds in certain positions in the syllable.
In languages such as Russian, English, French, syllabic boundaries in a word 1) are not related to its semantic division into morphemes and 2) are mobile in the formation of grammatical forms. There are languages in which a syllable is a stable sound formation that does not change either composition or boundaries in the flow of speech (Chinese, Burmese, Vietnamese, etc.) - syllabic, or languages of the syllabic structure. In languages of this type, the syllable usually acts as the exponent of the morpheme and is never broken by a "morpheme suture". Therefore, here the minimum phonological unit is a syllable, or a syllabem or its components involved in the alternation (the initial is the initial consonant of the syllable; the final is the rest of the syllable as a whole).
An open syllable ends with a syllabic sound (there is no back periphery), a closed syllable ends with a non-syllabic sound. There are languages that make extensive use of open and closed syllables, and others where only open syllables are possible. Open syllable languages: Proto-Slavic, Japanese. In modern Slavic languages, open syllables are used more widely than closed ones: intervocalic consonant clusters usually go to the next syllable (i-zba, a-kter). At the end of words, closed syllables are also widely represented in Russian.
The difference between long and short syllables (in ancient Greek, Latin, Arabic). Long syllables - with a long vowel at the top, as well as all closed syllables. Short syllables are open syllables with a short vowel at the top.
Diphthongs and triphthongs (polyphthongs) are a combination of several vowels pronounced as one syllable. Usually only one of these vowels makes up the top of a syllable. Depending on the location of the peak, ascending (fuente, tierra), descending (nose, Maus, give, mine) and ascending-descending polythongs are distinguished. Equilibrium diphthongs are rare, in which the top of the syllable is evenly distributed between both components.
The phonological interpretation of polyphthongs is twofold: as combinations of phonemes (polyphonemic interpretation), as separate integral phonemes (monophonemic interpretation). We are dealing with combinations of phonemes if a “morphemic seam” can pass inside a polyphthong and if polyfthongs in a given language both in the presence and in the absence of a morphemic seam sound the same (know also May, blow and buy, warm and wheatgrass ..) . In those languages where polyphthongs never break with a morphemic boundary - a monophonemic interpretation.
Diphthongoids are vowels with a heterogeneous sound, beginning or ending with a brief overtone of another vowel, usually close in articulation.
Prothetic consonants appear at the word boundary in order to eliminate cases of gaping that occur in the flow of speech (he, she, Belarusian. yon, yana with prosthetic /j/, Ukrainian wine, won with prosthetic /w/,..; father-patrimony, acute -sharp-eyed, octopus and eight).
There are other ways to eliminate gaping: the contraction of two adjacent vowels into one long vowel or diphthong (and thus two syllables into one; l’ instead of le and la in French before words that begin with vowels); elision, that is, the pushing out of one of the two vowels entering into immediate neighborhood (it happens - it happens in northern Russian dialects).
Groups of consonants that are unpronounceable within one syllable can also be eliminated in a simpler way - by reducing the group and eliminating the sonant, on the basis of which a new syllable could develop (ruble-rupe, life instead of life).
8. Prosodic phenomena.
Phonemes and syllables are linear or segmental units, that is, those that are represented by segments (segments) of one length or another, following one after another in the speech chain. The flow of speech is also characterized by suprasegmental (or supersegmental) features that are layered on a linear chain of segmental units, that is, they are always realized simultaneously with certain segmental units. Suprasegmental features of the sound matter of the language, called prosodic phenomena, include: melody (movement of the pitch of the main tone of the voice); changes in the intensity (strength) of the sound and the tempo of pronouncing segments; the use and nature of pauses; some timbre characteristics. Prosodic phenomena are observed within the framework of different units of the language: in a syllable - a syllabic accent; in a word - verbal stress (accent); within the units of coherent speech - phrasal intonation (includes different types of phrasal stress). The section of linguistics that studies word stress and syllabic accent is called accentology; a section that studies phrasal intonation - prosody (in the narrow sense), or intonation.
Verbal stress consists in the fact that in a word (or in a group of a significant word and auxiliary ones) one well-defined syllable is emphasized with the help of sound means, and sometimes another one (s). Stressed syllables are stressed (stressed), the rest are unstressed (unstressed).
The stressed syllable can be pronounced with greater intensity - dynamic, or power, stress. It can be lengthened - quantitative, or quantitative, stress. It can be distinguished by an increase / decrease in tone - musical, or tonic, stress. In some languages, there is also a qualitative stress - a special quality of the sounds that make up the stressed syllable. Ways of stress appear in combination with each other. In Russian, word stress is quantitative; the stressed syllable is louder and longer than the unstressed + qualitative moment - the timbre of the stressed vowel. In the system of the Russian language, stressed and unstressed syllables are in a certain way opposed to each other, and this opposition remains valid even in cases where there are no unstressed syllables within the utterance. In these cases, the qualitative, timbre side of the Russian accent clearly appears, which is less than its other sides in need of “support” with the help of contrast.
In polysyllabic words, the stress function clearly appears, which Trubetskoy called "vertex-forming" ("culminative"). The stressed syllable is the top of the word, the unstressed adjoin this top. Stress in both monosyllabic and polysyllabic words acts as a sign of the word, an indicator of its separateness. There is a vertex-forming function of stress special case more general function, which can be called word-forming. Stress is the same obligatory element of the sound image of a given word as a certain phonemic composition.
The segment, rallied by stress and the impossibility of an internal pause, is called an accent word. Often the accent word coincides with spelling and dictionary. But in some cases, the accent word includes two or more spelling or dictionary words (under the window, I would go, you know, ...). One of these words is significant, it can itself be a separate accent word. Other(s) words in such a group are not capable of either acting as a separate accent word or being used separately at all. These words, unable to have their own stress, are called clitics and, depending on the position before or after stress word subdivided into proclitics and enclitics. Many clitics never receive stress; in certain cases, the stress of a significant word passes to some (under the feet, across the field, from the forest).
For the most part, clitics are function words: prepositions, conjunctions, grammatical particles, articles, some auxiliary and connective verbs, modal particles like Russian de, they say, I mean. Clitics can also be semi-functional words - pronouns and special forms of pronouns.
Sometimes there is a coincidence of the phonemic composition of the clitic and the stressed word (conjunction and adverb as; particle and verb form was; definite article and demonstrative pronoun).
Word stress can be free (various) or connected (fixed, single).
1. Free stress is called in those languages in which it can stand on any syllables of the accent word. In every word and in every grammatical form of such a language, the place of stress is usually fixed strictly, so that vibrations occur only in isolated cases. (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Lithuanian, German, English, Scandinavian, Italian, etc.). There are cases when two different words or two different forms, having the same phonemic composition, differ only in the place of stress (crying, flour, herds, import). In relation to such cases (+ when the clitic coincides in phonemic composition with the word having stress), we can speak of a distinctive (word- and form-distinguishing) function of stress, superimposed on its main word-forming function. Free stress can be fixed (peas) in the formation of word forms or mobile (beard). The mobility of stress is observed in languages where stress characterizes certain non-root morphemes, grammatical forms and word-formation types. In general: in languages with free stress, the place of stress in a word form depends on its morphemic composition.
2. Associated (fixed) word stress is called in those languages in which it always (or almost always) falls on one syllable of a word defined in order (Finno-Ugric languages, Latvian, Czech, Slovak, Armenian, Tajik, Polish). Fixed stress turns out to be mobile if the number of syllables changes during the formation of word forms or derivative words. In languages with associated stress, the place of stress does not depend on the morphemic composition of the word, but is determined in relation to the word boundary (initial or final) and serves as an indicator of the proximity of the boundary. In these languages, the general word-forming function of stress is additionally layered with a word-delimiting (delimitative, or boundary signal function).
3. Semi-accented languages (Latin, Classical Arabic). In languages with semi-coupled stress, the place of stress depends on a) the location of the word boundary and b) some phonological (but not morphological!) features of this word.
Sometimes there is more than one stress in one word. The stresses are unequal, there is a certain gradation between them: the main stress is opposed to one or more secondary, weaker ones. Thus, the unity of the accent word, created by the main stress, is not violated; with the help of secondary stress, only some division is created within a single semantic and phonetic whole. In Russian, secondary stress appears only in more long words(machine-building, North American, .. with prefixes like -after, -against, -archy, -anti-postoperative, anti-imperialist, ..). And in these cases, secondary stress may be absent. In Germanic languages, secondary stresses are strictly obligatory in certain cases and are very common.
There are languages that do not have word stress(Paleo-Asiatic, Tungus-Manchu - Even and Evenki). In French, word stress exists only as the potential ability of most words to receive stress (clitics lack this ability). In practice, only phrasal stress is realized in French speech.
Syllabic accent (syllabic tone, syllable intonation) - takes place where, during a single syllable, various regular changes in the pitch of the main tone of the voice or the intensity of the sound occur, which can, opposing each other, perform a distinctive function (in Chinese, Vietnamese). Languages that have a syllabic accent are called tonal, or polytonic, as opposed to monotonic, that is, they do not have opposing types of tone (or intensity) movement within a syllable. Polytonic languages are primarily syllabic languages, but polytonism is also present in other languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Serbo-Croatian, Ancient Greek, etc.). Acute accent - an even movement of pitch in the stressed syllable (increase or decrease), gravel accent - the tone within the stressed syllable rises and falls again, then again rises slightly in the stressed syllable.
The concept of "phrasal intonation" (simply intonation) covers all prosodic phenomena observed within the framework of syntactic units - phrases and sentences. The most important component of intonation is melody, that is, the movement of the main tone of the voice (rising and falling), which creates the tonal contour of the utterance and its parts and thus connects and divides our speech. Melody and especially the second important component of intonation - intensity - are used to emphasize some parts of the utterance. The concept of intonation includes phrasal stress. Shcherba calls its neutral variety syntagmatic stress and considers it as a means of phonetic organization of syntagmas. Syntagma is a relatively small group of words united by proximity in the speech chain and a close semantic connection. In the Russian text, the syntagmatic stress is that the last word syntagma is emphasized more than others (that you did| yesterday in the evening?). Logical stress is observed in those cases when the content of speech requires a special allocation of some parts of the statement. It is often seen as a departure from the usual norms of syntagmatic stress. (his new I liked the book less than first). In other cases, logical stress further emphasizes the word, which should already be emphasized by syntagmatic stress. Logical stress can even violate the norms of verbal stress (before meals or after meals). The third component of intonation is the rate of speech, its slowdown and acceleration. By slowing down the tempo, more important words in the statement are highlighted (a kind of logical stress) or words that are most emotionally significant (emphatic, or emotionally expressive, stress). Important components intonations are also pausing, that is, the arrangement of pauses and their gradation according to the degree of duration, and timbre features that are associated with the expression of the general emotional mood of speech. All components of intonation are used in close interweaving with each other.
(9. Explanations and examples for tables of vowels and consonants - see textbook)
Chapter 3. Lexicology.
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary, that is, the vocabulary of a language. Vocabulary consists of words and set phrases that function in speech like words. Units of lexicology are bilateral, having meaning; their number is enormous; among them there are high-frequency, not very, existing potentially; Vocabulary reflects social practice, material and spiritual culture of the corresponding human collective, and therefore is in a state of continuous change (this does not exclude the presence in the vocabulary of each language of a stable “core” that has been preserved for centuries). The specificity of lexicology is attention to the individual characteristics of a single word, a special interest in a variety of extralinguistic factors, in social conditioning lexical phenomena. The task of lexicology is to collect (inventory), if possible, the entire vocabulary of the language, to find out and describe the meaning of each lexical unit. This is done by lexicography, which gives a description of vocabulary in the form of dictionaries (lexicons) of the corresponding language. Dictionaries carry out only the primary description of vocabulary, designed as a set of descriptions of individual lexical units taken into account within the framework of this dictionary. The material collected in dictionaries forms the basis for generalizations of lexicology, for identifying general patterns that govern the functioning and historical development vocabulary. An important branch of lexicology is semasiology, which studies the problems of the meaning (semantics) of lexical units.
1. Word as a unit of language
Compared with the morpheme, the word has greater independence (autonomy).
1. positional independence consists in the absence of a rigid linear connection with the words neighboring in the speech chain, in the possibility in most cases to separate it from the “neighbors” by inserting another (their) words, in the wide mobility, movability of the word in the sentence. The word is the smallest unit that has positional independence. The preposition is easily separated from the word and it is logical to consider it as a separate word.
2. The syntactic independence of a word lies in its ability to receive a syntactic function, acting as a separate single-word sentence or as a member of a sentence. It is not characteristic of all words (prepositions, articles, conjunctions, particles - no). The word is defined as the minimum unit capable of acting in isolation, as a separate definition in the corresponding situation.
Interpretation of service words: 1) service = significant, as they have mobility in the sentence 2) significant<->officials who are not able to make a separate proposal.
Traditional ideas about the word in many languages are based on the "spelling word" - a chain of letters between two spaces. This is closer to the first point of view. Also, the first point of view corresponds to the practice of dictionaries, in which all function words are given in separate entries. The concept of an accent word in some cases corresponds more to the concept of a syntactic word.
Difficulties in interpretation. Analytical (complex) forms (for example, at the table, I will read, has read ...) - combinations of words. This is a contradiction in the language itself, a discrepancy between the functional and structural side of formations called analytical forms: being functionally nothing more than word forms, these formations in their composition and structure are combinations of words - significant and auxiliary.
Other special cases: separable prefixes, phenomena of group inflection, bracketing the common part of two compound words in Russian combinations such as pre- and post-war.
Working definition: a word is the smallest relatively independent meaningful unit of a language. The relative independence of a word is most consistently manifested in its absence of a rigid linear connection with neighboring words, and in addition, the ability of many words to function syntactically - as a minimal (single-word) sentence or as a member of a sentence.
The word acts in the language system as an abstract unit - an invariant, and along with this also as a set of its variants; in speech, it is realized in the form of a specific instance, that is, a “speech word”. The invariant of a word is called a lexeme. An instance of a word in speech is a lex. Stable combinations that function like a word are compound lexemes, their instances in speech are compound lexemes.
Variation of a word may be a purely phonetic variation of the exponent, sometimes associated with a difference in style or professional languages, or with the phonetic conditions of the surrounding context. Word variation may be morphemic composition variation, with or without stylistic differentiation. Variation of the word can only concern the content side. The language variants of the corresponding word are allolexemes (alloleks). An important type of word variation is its grammatical variation, that is, the formation of its grammatical forms, or word forms, including analytical ones.
2. Lexical meaning of the word
In the content of a (significant) word, it is worth distinguishing two points (according to Potebnya):
The indication of “general categories”, that is, certain grammatical categories, contained in a significant word, is called grammatical meaning. They are doing grammar.
The indication contained in the word to “a known content peculiar to it alone”, that is, only to this word, in contrast to all other words, is called lexical meaning. It remains the same in all grammatical forms of the word, including analytic ones. It belongs to the lexeme as a whole. Lexicology and lexical semasiology are concerned with the study of LZ.
Service words - ambiguous; it is unambiguous that the grammatical meaning is the leading one in their content, if not the only one.
The core of the LZ in most significant words is a mental reflection of the phenomenon of reality, the subject in a broad sense. The object denoted by the word is called the denotation, or referent, and the display of the denotation (class of denotations) is called the conceptual meaning of the word, or designate. In addition to the core, the LZ includes connotations, or connotations - emotional, expressive, stylistic "additives" to the main meaning, giving the word a special color. In every language there are words for which the main meaning is the expression of emotions (wow! Ugh!) or the transmission of commands (stop! Get out!, ..). In the LZ of a word, three sides / facets are distinguished: 1) the relation to the denotation is the subject relatedness of the word; 2) relation to the categories of logic, primarily to the concept - conceptual relatedness; 3) relation to the conceptual and cognitive meanings of other words within the framework of the corresponding lexical system - significance.
The denotations of a word can be objects, events, properties, actions in the surrounding world; feelings and sensations of the inner world of a person, moral and logical evaluations and concepts; elements of the language (and the language as a whole), the processes that occur during its functioning in speech, the actions carried out in the process of studying it, etc. Fictitious denotations are associated with words whose designates are false concepts that arose at some stage in the development of culture and were later discarded (goblin, mermaid, phlogiston).
The general subject relatedness of a word is its relatedness conceptual meaning to a whole class (set) of denotations characterized by the presence of some common features (dog; green; smoking).
The particular subject relatedness of a word is the relation of its conceptual meaning to a separate, single denotation, an individual object, a separate concrete manifestation of a property, and so on. (certain dog, green, smoking).
According to the ability to act in general and / or particular attribution, most significant words are divided into three groups:
1. proper names always appear only in a private subject reference (Neva; Kyiv; Herzen; Tanya).
2. Common nouns (river, city, writer, girl, dog, green, smoke) can appear both in general and in particular subject relatedness. In the language system, they always have a common relation; in speech they have either private or general reference, depending on the nature of the utterance.
3. Demonstrative-substitutive words (pronouns - I, you, he, this, mine, which, only, how much, ..; pronominal adverbs - so, here, there, then, ..). In the language system, they have a common subject relatedness, in speech they always appear only in a particular relatedness. In dialogue, the particular attribution of such words is constantly changing. If the pronoun receives a general reference, it ceases to be a pronoun.
Proper names and common nouns are combined together as naming words that perform a nominative (naming) function. Demonstrative-substitutive words oppose them as pointer words and substitute words for names. Accordingly, they speak of deictic (indicative) and substitutional functions. These words are also called situational, since they receive different meaning depending on the situation. Acting instead of the word-name, the word-substitute makes it unnecessary to build this name in the subsequent segment of the text.
The considered groups of significant words are not separated from each other by impenetrable partitions. A proper name easily acquires the meaning of a common noun, that is, the ability to designate a whole class of objects that are homogeneous in any respect and, thereby, the ability to act in common subject relatedness (Plyushkin, Manilov, Othello, Tartuffe). In a similar way, sometimes the names of real persons, as well as geographical names, take on a more general, that is, nominal, meaning (Julius Caesar - Caesar, king; Charlemagne - king). A proper name - the name of the area - receives a nominal value as the name of the product (Palekh, Khokhloma, Bologna, ..). On the other hand, proper names arise on the basis of common words (chief, chief - certain; city). There is no sharp line between demonstrative-significant and common nouns (above, next - close in pronouns that, this, such; yesterday, tomorrow - to then, now; to the right, to the left - to here, there), since their situational content is changeable. The relativity of the meaning of substitute words is observed in terms of kinship, activity. On the other hand, turning the pronoun i into a noun.
Logic has long considered the concept as one of the forms of reflection of the world in thinking. The concept expressed by the word corresponds to a whole class of denotations, distinguished by a feature common to all denotations of this class. -> of all types of words, only common nouns serve to directly express concepts (others are correlated indirectly). Proper names are the names of individual objects, but they are thought of as belonging to certain classes, as a result of which the proper name is brought in the minds of the speakers under the general class and is associated with the corresponding concept (Neva - river; publication; hotels, steamships). Any proper name makes sense under the condition of such a correlation with the corresponding general concept. Demonstrative-substitutive, as well as function words and even interjections (ugh - disgust; stop - prohibition) are clearly correlated with the concepts.
With the seeming coincidence of the scientific and everyday concepts, a closer examination shows that they contain non-identical features.
The language form of expression and consolidation of a concept (scientific or everyday) can be a word and a long and complex word advice. Disclosure of the content of the concept can be different in terms of completeness and depth, it is achieved with the help of complex definition or detailed explanation.
The conceptual meaning of a word exists in a certain relationship with the conceptual meanings of other words, primarily words of the same semantic field. The semantic field is a set of word meanings associated with the same fragment of reality. The words whose meanings are included in the field form a thematic group. From the point of view of their internal semantic relations, words belonging to the same thematic group should be considered as some kind of relatively independent lexical microsystem.
Within the thematic group, different types of semantic links are distinguished. The most important of them is hierarchical, genus-species, between the designation of a wider set - a hypernym - and the designations of subsets subordinate to it - hyponyms. A hypernym can always be used instead of its own hyponym, but not vice versa. Sometimes in such hierarchical systems, not a word, but a phrase acts as a link.
The semantic relationship of a word to its hypernym and to its “neighbors” determines the volume and content of the concept expressed in the word. Given this relationship, we can formulate a logical definition of the conceptual meaning of the word, that is, its "definition through the closest genus and specific difference." A more detailed analysis of all the semantic relationships in which a given word participates allows us to split the conceptual meaning into the smallest components - separate semes: this is a component analysis. The selected semes partly act as integrating semantic features that combine a given meaning with some others, and partly as differential semantic features that delimit one meaning from another. Differential semantic features stand out in oppositions. For the clarity of the selection of these features, it is important to rely on cases where two elements are opposed only by one feature. There are such lexical systems in which the opposition of elements is global (undivided) in nature, that is, it is carried out immediately according to many conjugate features.
The complexity of the structure of lexical systems and microsystems is manifested in the fact that in individual links certain features turn out to be, as it were, constantly neutralized, unexpressed. In such cases, we will speak of syncretism.
Varieties of lexical microsystems are:
1) antonymic pairs combine antonyms, that is, words that are diametrically opposed in meaning. Multi-rooted and single-rooted.
2) A synonymic series may contain two or more synonyms, that is, words that partially or completely coincide in conceptual meaning, but differ in their connotations, scope of use, compatibility, etc. There are also absolute synonyms (especially in terminological vocabulary) - words with completely coinciding values. Sometimes these synonyms are used more often in different areas, this leads to the emergence of certain connotations and thus to some differentiation of these synonyms.
Words denoting the same or close phenomena of reality in different languages often turn out to be non-identical in their conceptual meanings (blue and blue - blue; arm, hand - arm, hand; fingers and toes; the difference is to wash and wash). Sometimes discrepancies between languages concern not separate words, but entire lexical microsystems (for example, in the system of kinship terms in some languages, other semantic DPs turn out to be significant). On the basis of such differences between languages in the composition of the dictionary and in the meanings of words (as well as differences in the grammatical order), the hypothesis of linguistic relativity was put forward (Sapir, Whorf) - they say that not only the language, but also the very vision of the world turns out to be different for different peoples, that each nation sees the world through the prism of its own language and therefore thinks and acts differently than other nations.
The laws according to which thinking proceeds are universal, international. At the same time, the specific inventory of concepts, realized by the collective and firmly fixed in the conceptual meaning of words, differs in many respects from language to language and, in the history of one language, from epoch to epoch. However, these differences, contrary to the theory of Sapir and Whorf, are not generated by language, but only appear in language. They are generated in social practice, in the cultural and historical experience of peoples. Reflecting the world, a person systematizes and models it in a certain way, depending on his practical needs. In addition, the very versatility of objective reality, the diversity of attributes of objects and phenomena, the presence of comprehensive connections between them give real grounds for grouping and combining these objects and phenomena into classes in very different ways, bringing to the fore one or the other of the signs. Different human groups could group the data of experience in different ways and, accordingly, fix this grouping in the meanings of the words of their languages. In phylogeny, that is, in the history of the formation and development of man, human thinking and language, social practice has always been primary, and differences between languages are secondary. In ontogenesis, that is, in the individual development of an individual, each new member of society and each new generation, entering life, acquires knowledge about the world through and therefore to a large extent through the prism of the native language.
But there are no impenetrable partitions between peoples: the concept is expressed not only with the help of a single word, but also in combinations of words. In principle, everything is translatable from any language to any other.
3. Polysemy of the word
Monosemia is deliberately supported in terminological vocabulary, sometimes found in everyday vocabulary. Polysemy, or polysemy, is typical for the vast majority of words in a language. In most cases, one word has several stable meanings that form semantic variants of this word. Potentially, almost any word is able to acquire new meanings when people using the language have a need to use it to name a new phenomenon for them, which does not yet have a designation in the corresponding language. There are relatively free meanings of the word (the first ones that come to mind when pronouncing the word in isolation) and related ones (in special situations).
There are certain semantic connections between the individual meanings of a polysemantic word, which make it clear why quite different concepts are called one word. Thanks to such connections, all the meanings of a polysemantic word are arranged in a certain order: one of the meanings (direct) is a support for the other (figurative; it can be of varying degrees, depending on the distance from the main one). Relations between meanings are not always clear, the initial direction of connections may not coincide with their awareness in later period language development.
The connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word implies the preservation in figurative meaning a feature that combines this meaning with direct (or with other figurative ones), but does not imply the identity of the entire set of semes distinguished in each of the meanings. Each meaning of a polysemantic word enters into its special system communications with other vocabulary items.
In addition to figurative meanings, as stable facts of the language, there is portable use words in speech, limited by the scope of this statement, the use of a word in an unusual meaning for it in order to give special expressiveness (this is an effective artistic technique). Exploring figurative meanings (in literature and in the common language), philologists have identified a number of types of transfer of names.
We are dealing with a metaphor where the transfer of a name from one object to another is carried out on the basis of the similarity of certain signs (green, flash, aunt, go). The similarity can be internal - the similarity of sensation, impression or assessment.
Metonymy is based on real connections between the corresponding objects/phenomena: adjacency in space/time, causal relationships, .. (green, audience, earth, evening, ..). The name of the vessel is used as a measure of a substance (he ate a plate, drank half a glass); transferring the name from the process to the result (masonry, wiring, message), to the material used (fertilizer), to the production premises (photo - process, product, premises), ... A kind of metonymy is synecdoche, transferring the name from part to whole, a piece of clothing - per person (runs after each skirt), from the class of objects and phenomena to one of the subclasses (car - car; smell - bad smell).
Comparing the facts of word polysemy in different languages, one can find similarities and differences. It is also possible to note a number of metaphors peculiar to different languages. Grab = understand, to catch, to grasp, capiere, ... Nouns denoting parts of the human body are used figuratively for similar objects - the neck of a bottle, the leg of a table (as diminutives, door handles, teapot spout, the eye of the needle, ..). There are regular international metonyms: language is an organ, language is a means of communication: lingua, tongue, .. Green - other meanings are added in other languages. The figurative meanings of the window and the fish are not marked in English, French, German languages.
The polysemy of the word does not prevent speakers from understanding each other. The surrounding speech context and the very situation of communication removes polysemy and quite clearly indicate which of the meanings is meant. Sometimes there are cases in which the speech environment of the word and the situation are insufficient to remove the polysemy, and then either an inadvertent misunderstanding or a pun arises - a conscious play on words, built on the possibility of their dual understanding. Usually, even a little context is enough to exclude all meanings that are extraneous for a given case and thus, for a moment, turn a multi-valued “word of the language” into an unambiguously used “word in speech”. Polysemy is removed by the context and is revealed in all its originality by placing the word in different contexts. Some believe that polysemy is generated by context. In principle, polysemy is created by a social need - either for a suitable name for a new object/phenomenon, or for a new name for an old object that has already been designated in some way.
4. Word homonymy
Homonymy is the identity of the meaning of two or more different words. Different, but the same sounding words - homonyms (bor 123 - completely different three words that accidentally coincide in sound; flow 12 verb-nouns - are related in meaning and origin). Homonymy usually does not interfere with understanding, since homonyms are delimited for the listener by context and situation. By identifying and differentiating homonyms, the context cannot be the cause of their occurrence.
A. In accordance with the motives for which these words are recognized as homonyms, the following are distinguished:
1. purely lexical homonymy (there is no connection between LZ: boron 123, drown 12, stern 12, match 12, ...)
2. grammatical homonymy of words (flow 12 - different parts of speech; evil12, love 12)
3. lexical and grammatical homonymy (not related by LZ, different parts of speech: simple 12, light 12)
B. According to the degree of completeness of homonymy, the following are distinguished:
1. full homonymy - homonyms are the same in sound in all forms (key 12, stern 12, match 12)
2. partial homonymy - homonyms are identical in sound only in some of their forms (reap 12, boron 12, flow 12, know 12).
3. unequal homonymy - complete for one homonym and partial for another (boron 32 in singular is the same, in plural is not; learned noun and adj; adverb morning and noun morning).
B. By the nature of their display in writing
1. homographic homonyms, homographs, are identical in sound and spelling
2. neo-homographic, or homonyms that differ in spelling (campaign-company, horn-rock, shafts-oxen; night-knight, see-sea)
D. From the point of view of registration in dictionaries, homonyms are not the same. Dictionaries mark only those homographic homonyms that match in the initial form (inf, im n, unit h)
It is possible to classify homonyms according to their origin. Often these are initially different words that coincided in sound in the process of historical development (see-sea) or came from different languages (boron) or the newly formed word coincided at the time of its occurrence with an already existing one (stern). In other cases, homonyms are related by origin, derived from one root (leak) or one from another (nar in the morning from nouns). Here are homonyms that arise as a result of the collapse of polysemy, when the connection between derived meanings weakens so much that it ceases to be felt by members of the language community (thin).
Some linguists consider the criterion for the presence/absence of a semantic relationship between meanings used to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy to be undefined and suggest using the criterion for the presence/absence of any grammatical features associated with individual values. They are wrong (then it would be necessary to consider stern12 as polysemantics; to isolate the mathematical angle as a homonym from others). Despite some uncertainty in a number of borderline cases, the criterion of the presence / absence of a semantic connection between meanings is still decisive, since we are talking about the delimitation of the polysemy of the word and the purely lexical homonymy of the word.
Great disagreements also arise when delimiting the grammatical homonymy of words from cases where one word combines the syntactic functions of different parts of speech (line 12). The whole system of forms shows that these are different words. But with regard to substantivized adjectives there is inconsistency: the scientist considers the noun one of the meanings of the adjective; the nouns Russian and Russian are homonyms of the adjective (moreover, Russian in the meaning of national dance is another homonym).
5. Motivation of the word
An integral part of the internal content of many words is motivation - the “justification” of the sound image of this word, that is, its exponent, contained in the word and realized by the speaker, - an indication of the motive that determines the expression of this meaning by this particular combination of sounds. Cuckoo, carpenter - motivated in the modern language, have a lively motivation. Bread, eagle, locksmith, white, two, you are unmotivated words, do not have a living (=clear for native speakers) motivation.
Each object/phenomenon of reality has many features. It is enough to indicate one sign (a motivating sign), and the word built on its basis, fixed to the subject, will evoke in the mind the idea of the subject as a whole (dandelion-powder, fly, milk jug). Sometimes the name is based on a combination of two motivating signs (blue-bell).
Motivation based on a real motivating feature can be called real. In other cases, there is a fantastic motivation that reflects mythical ideas, poetic fictions and legends (the names of the days of the week in a number of languages are associated with the names of the gods of pagan mythology - Sunday (Sonntag) - the day of the sun god; donnerstag - Thursday - the day of the god of thunder). There are examples of purely formal motivation: it is clear from which word the given word is formed, but it is not clear why (Antonovka - apple; pansies).
There may be different ways of linguistic expression of a motivating feature. The “sound matter” of the language creates the possibility of “pictorial motivation”, allowing you to imitate the characteristic sound of an object - onomatopoeic words: cuckoo, ping-pong, meow, hum, croak, cackle, giggle ... Descriptive motivation is more common, that is, a description of a motivating feature with using a common word. This can be observed 1) when using a word in a figurative sense 2) in derivatives and compound words (they are motivated by the connection with the words that formed them). Carpenter, dandelion, fisherman, vacuum cleaner, teacher, whitewash, eighty, ... Descriptive motivation is limited: in the end it always relies on an unmotivated word.
The motivation of a word should be strictly distinguished from the conceptual meaning. Motivation is, as it were, a way of depicting a given meaning in a word, its visual image, the imprint of the movement of thought that remains in the word, which took place at the moment the word appeared -> motivation is sometimes called internal form words, considering it as a link through which the content (=meaning) of the word is associated with its external form - morphological structure and sound. The difference between motivation and meaning is clearly seen in cases where the same meaning is motivated in different languages or in synonymous words in different ways. However, often words with different meanings have a similar motivation. It is noted that the meaning that a word could have in accordance with its motivation and word-formation structure is almost always wider than that which it actually has in the language (milkman - could mean any object related to milk). The motivation of a word is associated with its emotional connotations. This is manifested in a conscious repulsion from words with an unpleasant motivation (instead of a servant and a salary - a housekeeper and a salary).
In the process of the functioning of the word, motivation is forgotten - the loss of motivation. Sometimes the word from which the given word is derived goes out of use, or the direct meaning is lost (they stopped using the word kolo = circle, wheel - the ring became unmotivated, about). Sometimes an object designated by a word, changing in the process of historical development, loses the sign by which it was named (cities are now not fenced off with walls, the connection between fence and city is not realized; they shoot without arrows, the bag is not connected with fur, the ink is not always black; in combined with red ink, one does not feel catachresis - a use that contradicts the literal meaning of the word). Sometimes words related by origin diverge greatly in their sound form - their unification in the minds of the speakers is hampered by the unusual alternation observed in them (set on edge and pinch; scythe and scratch; pole and fence, ..). In addition to specific reasons, there is a general prerequisite that makes the loss of motivation possible: redundancy, the uselessness of motivation from the moment when the word becomes clear. The simplest and most important words are unmotivated.
Motivation is lost when words are borrowed from another language (on the basis of the ancient Greek atomos - I don’t + I cut - an atom, from the very beginning it has no motivation; student and study in the minds of modern speakers are not connected (student, study; student, studieren are connected); but the revolutionary is motivated by the connection with the borrowed revolution). Words with lost motivation function in the same way as words with live motivation (locksmith, Saturday - carpenter, Friday). There are cases when an unmotivated word turns out to be an inconvenient means of communication; it is difficult to remember it if you do not invent a motivation - it is carried out on the basis of sound and semantic associations, regardless of the true genetic connections of the given word (colic - from the Greek kolon gut, and not from prick - inventing did not affect the external form of the word; in other cases sound distortion - jacket, pavement, boulevard -> spinzhak, plitoir, gulvar; a distorted form enters the literary language - as a result of distortion, the ordinary (ordinary) appeared single, + there was a narrowing of the conceptual meaning). Sometimes there are cases of rethinking the original motivation completely. common words, this is due to the change in the meaning of their producing ones (Monday is first the day after Sunday, then the day after the previous week).
Etymology is engaged in the study of the lost motivations and, consequently, the study of the origin of the corresponding words. + Etymology - each hypothesis about the origin and original motivation of the word; the very origin of the word and its initial motivation. Forgetting motivation is called de-etymologization; inventing and rethinking motivation - folk (false) etymology.
6. Set phrases and phraseological units
In every language, stable, traditionally repeated combinations of words are widely used. They are opposed to variable combinations freely created in the process of speech. Variable combinations: new table, long -, put a pencil on -, .. They are formed according to syntactic models, according to a specific lexical composition, they are composed freely. Variable phrases should be considered as speech combinations of linguistic signs - words. Stable combinations: a desk, a dining table, set on -, remove from -, sit down at -, put on -, cards on the table! In stable combinations, the grammatical model and the specific lexical composition of the entire combination are predetermined. Stable combinations are especially complex signs, compound lexemes.
The conditions that create the stability of a phrase can be different. There are words that have selective compatibility, up to single compatibility (bosom friend, sworn - enemy, never mind - not to be seen): here the stability of the combination is created by the very fact of single compatibility of one of the components. More often, the reason for stability lies in a more or less distinct semantic isolation of a phrase, in a shift in meaning. Stable combinations with such a shift are called phraseological units, they are studied by the science of phraseology.
In some phraseological units - they are sometimes called phrasemes - the semantic transformation is noted in only one component: a desk, a dinner -, a cold weapon - the noun is used in the usual sense. In other phraseological units, idioms, there is a general shift in meaning that affects all components (sit down at one table, cards on the table!, white coal, how to give a drink). The integral meaning of an idiom (and phraseme) is irreducible to the sum of the meanings of its components. This irreducibility is called idiomatic.
Phrases and idioms can be motivated (sit down at the same table, white coal, hold a stone in your bosom, wash dirty linen in public) or lose motivation (tobacco business, headlong, damn it, wherever you go, scream at the top of Ivanovo). Motivated idioms and phrasemes are called phraseological units, and unmotivated phraseological unions. To restore the lost motivation of phraseological units, etymological analysis, historical references, etc. are needed. The motivation of many phraseological units remains unclear.
The boundaries between the considered types are not sharp. A special group is phraseologisms, in which there is both a single combination of one of the components (or the uniqueness of the grammatical form), and a clear semantic shift (beat the thumbs, sharpen the laces, turuses on wheels, the cornerstone, folded hands, the talk of the town). In some cases the motivation is clear, in others it is obscured/lost.
From their point of view syntactic functions among sustainable combinations stand out: 1) equivalent to words with possible further divisions - equivalent to verbs (to wash dirty linen in public), noun (white coal), adverbs (head-on), etc., in other terms - functioning as a predicate, circumstance, ... 2) used as whole sentences (Cards on the table! Damn it! Tobacco business) + folk proverbs and sayings, maxims and aphorisms from literature, ..
Phraseologisms are diverse in terms of belonging to functional styles. Colloquial, even vulgar (hit the hat, the reins fell under the tail), others are used in book styles (Sisyphean labor, sink into oblivion), some are devoid of emotional coloring (specific gravity, soft landing, black box, part of speech), others have more emotional charge.
The national originality of phraseological units is especially clearly manifested in those phrases that reflect the specific features of folk life and the specific history of the people (bread and salt, language will bring to Kiev, monomakh's hat, here's your grandmother and St. George's day, Potemkin villages), many catchphrases from the works of the national liters (there is still gunpowder in the powder flasks! Gogol). And to phraseological units with bright national specifics, one can find parallels close in meaning among the French of another language (to go to Tula with your own samovar - to carry coals to Newcastle). There are many interethnic phraseological units that have entered many languages as a result of interaction between cultures: winged words from the Bible (Bibleisms - Babylonian pandemonium, the prodigal son, wash your hands, dig another hole, a book with seven seals, a stumbling block), quotes from the works of world literature ry (add oil to the fire - Horace, appetite comes with eating - Rabelais, the connection of times is broken - Shakespeare), catchphrases of prominent historical figures(veni, vidi, vici - Caesar).
7. Lexicography
Linguistic dictionaries (collect and describe lexical units of a language, a special subtype is ideographic, going from a concept to its expression in a word) and non-linguistic (lexical units serve only as a starting point for reporting information about objects/phenomena of extralinguistic reality). Any dictionary from the point of view of the material it covers can be either general (BSE - a large Soviet encyclopedia) or special (industry encyclopedia - medical, philosophical, ..).
A dictionary entry is a paragraph/several paragraphs of a dictionary that provides information related to one lexical unit. The article begins with a heading. The collection of all words in a dictionary is a dictionary.
Consider linguistic dictionaries. An explanatory dictionary gives an interpretation of the meanings of words (and stable combinations) of any language by means of the same language. Interpretation is given by means of a logical definition of a conceptual meaning, through the selection of synonyms, or in the form of indicating a grammatical relationship to another word. In some explanatory dictionaries, the meanings of words are sometimes revealed with the help of drawings. Emotional, expressive and stylistic connotations are indicated by special labels. Separate meanings are illustrated by examples - typical combinations with a given word or literary quotations. Usually explanatory dictionaries also give a grammatical description. The pronunciation of the word (stress) is also indicated. Usually explanatory dictionaries are dictionaries of the modern literary language and are of a normative nature (BAS, MAS; a typical example of a strictly normative dictionary is the French Dictionary of the Academy). Dahl's explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language, which includes regional and dialect vocabulary, is non-normative.
explanatory dictionaries translations are opposed, most often bilingual, sometimes multilingual. Instead of interpretation - translations of meanings into another language (in the "native" part there should be little, in the translated part - a lot and voluminous). A good translation dictionary should also contain stylistic notes.
General dictionaries also include those that consider all layers of vocabulary, but from a specific point of view. For example, frequency dictionaries: the task is to show the degree of use of words in speech. These dictionaries make it possible to draw conclusions about the functioning of words and grammatical categories. They are of great practical importance for the rational selection of vocabulary in the early stages of learning a non-native language.
Grammar dictionaries - give a detailed grammatical description of the word (Zaliznyak's dictionary), derivational (derivative) - indicate the division of words into their constituent elements; compatibility dictionaries - give typical contexts of the word.
Etymological dictionaries contain information about the origin and initial motivation of words, they give the correspondence of the given word in related languages and scientists' hypotheses about its etymology.
Special group - historical dictionaries. Inode's goal is to trace the evolution of each word and its individual values throughout the written history of the respective language (the German dictionary started by the Brothers Grimm); sometimes - dictionaries of past periods in the history of the language (Sreznevsky's dictionary of the Old Russian language, a dictionary of the Russian language of the 11-17th centuries, a dictionary of the Russian language of the 18th century), also dictionaries of the language of writers (Pushkin's language dictionary) and even individual monuments. The dictionary of the language of the writer/work strives to be exhaustive: it necessarily includes all the words used in the surviving text or texts of the writer, and often indicates all the forms of these words encountered; illustrates with quotes all the selected meanings and shades of meanings, addresses of all cases of their use are given.
General dictionaries also include full dialect dictionaries, which cover all the vocabulary that exists in dialect speech on the territory of one dialect, both specific for this dialect and coinciding with the vocabulary of the national language (Pskov Regional Dictionary Larin).
Spelling and spelling dictionaries for purely practical purposes.
Among the special linguistic dictionaries are phraseological dictionaries (translated and monolingual), dictionaries of winged words and dictionaries of folk proverbs and sayings. Dictionaries of synonyms - monolingual and translated, antonyms, homonyms, "false friends of the translator" (words that are close in some two languages in sound and spelling, but divergent in meaning - magazine). Differential dialect dictionaries contain only dialect vocabulary that does not coincide with the national one: it can be a dictionary of one dialect / many or all territorial dialects of a language (Dictionary of Russian Folk Sayings), dictionaries of slang and slang.
Dictionaries of foreign words, abbreviations, dictionaries of proper names, dictionaries of rhymes.
The most commonly used alphabetical order. Sometimes nesting is used - the union within one dictionary entry of words related by the common root, even if this violates the alphabetical sequence (this is convenient for word-forming dictionaries and etymological ones; Arabic words are built alphabetically by roots).
Reverse (inversion) dictionaries - words are arranged alphabetically by the final letters of the word (a, ba, woman, toad, ... amoeba, .. service, .. hut, .... -ya: front, unmarried). Reverse dictionaries are valuable in the study of suffix word formation, phonetic patterns associated with the end of a word, ..
Non-alphabetic - the principle of a systematic (logical classification) of concepts expressed by lexical units (ideographic words). A classification of concepts is developed, and everything that is to be included in the dictionary is located under its headings. A special kind of ideographic dictionaries are picture dictionaries, bilingual/multilingual. They contain drawings depicting a “piece of reality” and, under the corresponding numbers, the names of the objects depicted. In frequency dictionaries, words are arranged according to decreasing frequency, and sometimes according to grammatical classification rubrics (by parts of speech), but along with this, the alphabetic principle is used.
Mixed types of dictionaries. Transitional from linguistic to non- - dictionaries of terms various sciences and branches of technology. Single/double/multilingual.
Universal dictionaries, both explanatory and encyclopedic, also including etymological and historical references, sometimes material of foreign quotations and, if necessary, drawings (Larousse dictionaries; Webster's English dictionary).
Chapter 4. Grammar.
1. Introductory remarks
The term "grammar" is ambiguous: it denotes both a science - a section of linguistics, and an object of this science - a grammatical structure objectively existing in each language (in a broad sense - a set of laws for the functioning of units of a language at all levels of its structure, in a narrow sense - a set of construction rules 1 ) lexical units (words from morphemes); 2) related statements and their parts - from lexical units selected in the process of speech each time, respectively, according to the thought expressed). All these rules are directly or indirectly correlated with some features of the transmitted content. Grammatical rules are included in the general system of correspondences between the content plan and the language expression plan. Therefore, the rules of construction are at the same time the rules for understanding the expressed meanings. Those elements of content that are behind grammar rules are called grammatical meanings. Grammatical meanings are presented in separate words and their forms, but to a greater extent - in meaningful combinations of significant words and in the whole sentence. Grammatical means (or methods) used in languages are formal indicators of the corresponding grammatical meanings.
The peculiarity of grammatical meanings lies in the fact that, unlike lexical meanings, they are not called in our speech, but are expressed in passing. In creating the integral meaning of an utterance, as well as the meaning of all its meaningful parts, grammatical meanings play an essential role, no less than the lexical meanings of the words used in the utterance. It is the grammatical meanings that organize the statement, make it an adequate expression of thought.
Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions. Grammatical oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category is a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, systematically expressed by one or another formal indicator. Grammatical categories are diverse - in terms of the number of opposed members - grammes, in the ways of their formal expression, in the nature of the expressed meanings and their relation to reality. There are two-member categories (number, verb form), three-member (person), polynomial (case). The more grammemes in a given grammeme, the more complex the oppositional relations between them, the greater the number of semantic DPs in the content of each grammeme.
There are grammatical categories that find expression in word forms, simple (synthetic) or complex (analytic). It is these categories that are most readily denoted by the term “grammatical category.” In turn, they are divided into a) form-building, that is, they appear directly in the formation of the forms of a given word; b) classificatory, that is, inherent in a given word in all cases of its use and thereby relating it word to some class (category) of words. They appear indirectly.
Grammar categories associated with a single word are opposed by grammatical categories that manifest themselves only within the framework of a whole sentence or a combination of significant words (statement: question, simple: approximate indication of quantity).
According to the nature of the transmitted meanings, grammatical categories can be divided into three types: 1) objective - mainly reflect the connections and relations of objective reality observed and refracted by human consciousness (for example, the number in the names of entities). 2) subjective-objective - reflect the relationship between the described situation and the position of the subjects - participants in communication (categories of person, time) or establish the angle of view from which reality is considered (collateral, type, certainty / uncertainty, expressed in a number of languages by the article). 3) formal - are used mainly to signal the fact of a connection between words, but do not reflect any differences in objective reality or in its subjective perception (grammatical gender for entities that are not related to gender).
The boundaries between these types are changeable. The grammemes of most categories are polysemantic; from their “semantic spectrum”, that is, from a set of meanings potentially inherent in them in the language, they actualize one or the other in speech (2nd person - addressee of speech / generalized personal meaning; plural - separate set of objects (books) / set of varieties of a given substance (dry wines) / fictitious set (You) / formal sign (Athens, Thebes, Novosokolniki); singular - singularity (fish swam) / collective meaning (fish trade) / general meaning (fish breathes with gills) - unit h is "background" for a more specific plural; and in other grammatical categories, cases of greater or lesser semantic-unequal value of their constituent grammes are typical).
1. semantic-grammatical categories are characterized by semantic features that are manifested in the grammatical functioning of the corresponding words. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Smaller groupings are distinguished within the parts of speech (among entities - odush / inanimate, names of persons / names of masses, countable / uncountable, specific (objective) / abstract (fictitious-objective); among adjectives - qualitative / relative, etc.). A special place is occupied by word-formation categories that appear in the word-formation structure of the word, for example, “action names” (carrying, carrying, inscription), “actor name” (carrier, subscriber), etc.
2. Formal categories differ in the way the grammatical forms of the words included in them are formed. These are declinary classes, that is, different declensions (the declension of the words spring and autumn), conjugational classes, that is, different conjugations (1st and 2nd in Russian or strong and weak in Germanic), different types of formation of degrees of comparison, etc. In principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition between formal categories: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings, serving the circle of lexemes traditionally assigned to each way.
Interaction of grammatical categories with semantic-grammatical categories of words. One type is the modification of the specific content of grammes when they are “imposed” on words of a certain semantic-grammatical category (the gramme fills the plural with different content depending on its application to the names of units / names of masses; husband and wife gender when applied to nouns denoting persons ( and animals), indicate gender, and when applied to others they serve only as a means of formal agreement.Another type of influence of semantic-grammatical categories and even LZ words on grammatical categories is the phenomenon of semantically determined defectiveness of grammes: sometimes the meaning of a grammeme and the meaning of a category (or individual incoming words into it) turn out to be incompatible or hardly compatible, and then the corresponding forms are not formed at all (or only in theory, but not used in practice).Many “mass names”, names of abstract concepts, as well as some proper names do not form a plural ( fluff, milk, youth, anger, Moscow, Dnieper) - singularia tantum Other words e the same semantic-grammatical categories do not have forms of units h (spirits, firewood, yeast, chores, twilight, Athens, Carpathians, names of two-pronged objects - scissors, tongs, trousers, sledges, ...) - pluralia tantum. Important: the category of number in both groups turned out to be inapplicable in this language to words of a certain semantics. + the meaning of the comparative and superlative degrees is incompatible with the adjectives barefoot, hollow, double, grandfather - the impossibility of the forms "bosee", "barefoot".
The interaction of LZ and grammatical meanings in a language is quite natural. The same information can often be expressed either as a grammatical, or as a lexical meaning, or as a combination of them.
Grammar science is traditionally divided into two large departments - morphology, or the grammar of a word, and syntax, or the grammar of connected speech (and, in general, units larger than a single word). This division is conditional - as the grammatical meanings behind the change in word forms are fully revealed only when taking into account the syntactic functions of these forms, that is, their functions within the phrase and sentence. As part of the “grammar of the word”, the area associated with the formation of words as lexical units of the language (word formation or derivatology) and the area associated with the formation of grammatical forms of the word (actual morphology) are distinguished. In the grammars of many languages, an important role is played by the description of the technical rules associated with the functioning of formal grammatical categories, with the differences between formal categories and the distribution of words in these categories. But the true "soul" of grammar is the identification of semantic differences behind grammatical rules, that is, the identification of grammatical meanings and categories. Therefore, both in word formation, and in morphology proper, and in syntax, the problems of grammatical semantics come to the fore.
2. Morpheme is an elementary two-sided unit of language
A morpheme is the minimum two-sided unit of a language, that is, one in which 1) the content is assigned to the exponent and which 2) is indivisible into simpler units that have the same property. The concept of a morpheme was introduced by Baudouin de Courtenay as a unifying concept for the concepts of root, prefix, suffix, ending, that is, as the concept of the minimum meaningful part of a word, linearly distinguished in the form of a certain sound segment (segment) with morphological analysis. Baudouin considers zero morphemes as segment morphemes. Now the morpheme is considered as a universal language unit. Along with segmental morphemes-parts of words, segmental morphemes are distinguished that function as a whole word - official (prepositions to, on; conjunctions and, but) or significant (here, alas, metro, stew). There are languages (Vietnamese) in which such morphemes-words ("free morphemes") predominate. Other various types of morphemes - "morpheme-operations" - are also distinguished.
The isolation of morphemes - parts of words - is based on the parallelism between the partial differences observed in appearance(sound) of words and their forms, and partial differences in their meanings (lexical and grammatical) transmitted by these words and forms. By comparing morphemes that are partly different (and partly similar) in sound and meaning, we identify differences (and similarities) in sound, parallel to differences (and similarities) in meaning, and thus establish units in which, behind a certain exponent (segment of sound , sometimes zero sounding, etc.) a certain content (meaning) is fixed. If these units turn out to be minimal, that is, not amenable to further division on the basis of the same principle, then these will be morphemes.
As an abstract unit in the language system, every morpheme is an invariant, but many morphemes act as a series (set) of language variants - allomorphemes (allomorphs). In the text, the morpheme is represented by its specific speech instances - morphs. Since the morpheme is a two-sided unit, its linguistic variation is twofold. This can be variation in terms of expression, that is, variation in the exponent, or variation in terms of content, that is, polysemy of the morpheme. An example of exponential variation: the verbal prefix -over (-I cut, -I build,..). An example of meaningful variation: the same prefix introduces into the verb either the meaning of adding from above to something (superstructure, I will draw), or the meaning of penetrating to a shallow depth (I will cut, bite).
Between the exponential variants of the morpheme, either relations of non-crossing distribution (over-), or relations of free variation (ruk / oj / - ruk / oju /) are observed. According to the two indicated types of distributive relations, we can speak of obligatory and optional exponents of a morpheme.
As for the content variation, that is, the polysemy of a morpheme, it is delimited and removed by the context, primarily with the help of neighboring morphemes.
Segment morphemes - parts of words (parts of simple, synthetic word forms) - are divided into two large classes: 1) roots and 2) non-roots, or affixes. These classes are opposed to each other primarily by the nature of the expressed meaning and by their function in the composition of the word.
As part of significant words, the roots are carriers of LZ, usually coinciding in LZ of words containing these roots and the simplest in morphological structure (lz hand-=lz hand). In significant words of a more complex structure, the root (or each of the roots) carries some part of the integral LZ of the word or acts as a “support” of motivation. Affixes do not carry independent LZs, their meanings are either lexical and grammatical (word-forming, derivational: -k- to the pen, you- to help out), or proper grammatical (relational, that is, expressing relationships: -a in hand, -oh in hand) , or they perform formal-structural (-o- in the washstand) and formal-classifying functions (the indicator of conjugation -i- in tame and help out before the relational morpheme - the indicator of the infinitive -t-).
The root (or combination of roots) forms the semantic core and the structural organizing center of the word. Derivational affixes participate together with the root (combination of roots) in the formation of a complete LZ of the word (handle - small hand: root + k; handle - door: the meanings of the root and affix have become components of motivation; washstand, -nick - “a tool, a device for .. .”; derivational affix -n- “referring to...” in manual – general meaning).
The grammatical meanings inherent in the word form and the word as a whole are expressed in different ways - by relational affixes, zero morphemes and other types of non-segmental morphemes, partly by derivational affixes, in some cases by the roots themselves - in suppletive series, when different grammatical forms of one word are formed from different roots ( good-better: affix -sh- and replacement of the root good- with the root -luch-). Formal-structural and formal-classifying affixes have purely auxiliary functions, not related to the transfer of any semantic oppositions. The exponent of a segmental morpheme is a part of a word:
1) is represented by a segment of a certain length (a phoneme or a sequence of phonemes), and the phonemic composition of the segment is constant (prefixes at-, y-, you-; root -pears) or variable (prefix over-; root hands-), and the segment is continuous ( examples above) or intermittent.
2) This segment occupies a certain position in the linear sequence of segments representing morphemes, on which the separation of the concepts of prefix, ending, etc. is based
3) This segment can affect the phonemic composition of neighboring segments, causing alternations of phonemes in them (the adjective suffix –n- causes alternations at the root: hand-hand, foot-foot, laugh-funny, business-efficient).
4) In many languages, a segment representing a morpheme has a certain suprasegmental, prosodic characteristic, which manifests itself both in itself (for example, always stressed / unstressed), and within other segments of the same word (-iva-/-yva- suff pulls the stress on the preceding syllable - read-read).
There are differences between the exponents of roots and affixes. Differences in linear extent and phonemic composition. On average, the length of the root segment turns out to be greater than the average length of the affix segment, and the segments of formal-structural and formal-classifying morphemes are the shortest. It happens that the set of phonemes used in affix segments is less than the full set of phonemes of a given language (in Arabic, Hebrew, and other Semitic languages, the root exponent contains only consonant phonemes, they form the skeleton of a word, in real word forms they are separated by the insertion of vowels belonging to affixes ).
Differences in positional characteristics. In accordance with the role of the root as a semantic core, the segment representing the root serves as a reference point in relation to which the position of all affix segments is determined. In a row (and in others) three positions of affixes are possible: 1) before the root or roots (to the left of the root) - prefixes, or prefixes; 2) after the root / roots (on the right) they are occupied by postfixes (in the broad sense) often represented in a row by chains of several units in one word form; 3) the position between two roots is often filled with an interfix (formal-structural, connecting spelling affixes -о- and -е-).
Postfixes in a broad sense are subdivided further, based on mixed functional-positional criteria. Endings (inflections) are distinguished, which often occupy a position at the very end of a simple word form, express the syntactic links of a given word with others. They talk about case, personal and generic endings, but usually they do not consider the infinitive indicator to be the ending. Most postfixes that do not fall into the number of endings are called suffixes. One more group is singled out in r yaz - postfixes in the narrow sense: this is a reflexive morpheme -sya / -s, which is always placed after the end, also -something, or (some, -or). Prefixes and postfixes of various kinds are widely present in many languages, but are absent or rare in some. There are interfixes in German (the connecting -s- in arbeit|s|tag is a working day). In some languages, the system of positional classes of morphemes is more complex. There are discontinuous morphemes represented by a segment that can be split by the insertion of an "outside" segment representing another morpheme. There are also classes of affixes 4) if a continuous affix segment is inserted inside a discontinuous root segment, this is an infix (used in a number of verbal forms of ancient and some modern Indo-European languages - Ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian; Latin present infix -n- in findo - split, perfect fidi , root fi…d-). 5) if the intermittent affixal segment covers the root on both sides, it is a confix, or a circumfix (ge…t and ge…en in the participle German language: gemacht - made, gelesen - read, roots mach-, les-); historically, a circumfix is a combination of a prefix and a postfix, merged in a semantic and functional sense into one morpheme. 6) if the intermittent affixal and intermittent root segments are mutually linked to each other, this is a transfix (in Arabic: root d...r...s dars - lesson - darus - lessons).
Differences in the impact on the phonemic composition of neighboring segments and in prosodic characteristics. In a row and in others, the subsequent morpheme often affects the previous one (the root on the prefix, the postfix on the root). In German, the postfix plural noun –er causes Umlaut (mutation) – Wald-Wälder –forest-forests. The impact on neighboring segments is the same essential and integral characteristic of the exponent of the influencing morpheme as the phonemic composition of its own segment. In a number of Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, the regular influence of the root on the phonemic composition of postfixes is a phenomenon of vowel harmony.
Prosodic characteristics: in the Old Germanic languages, the role of the root as a semantic core was emphasized by its emphasis. Now the same.
Roots and affixes can also be distinguished in many functional words, for example, in auxiliary verbs - I will, has, had. In these cases, both the root and the affix express grammatical meanings: the root is the meaning of time, the affix is the meaning of a person and a number. The root in the functional word remains the semantic core: it carries a grammatical meaning common to all forms formed with this functional word.
Taking into account the functional and semantic proximity between affixes and functional words, the considered types of morphemes are also grouped differently:
1) lexical (significant) morphemes, including a) roots of significant words and b) morphemes-significant words
2) grammatical (functional) morphemes, which include a) affixes of significant words b) morphemes - functional words c) morphemes-parts (including roots) of functional words
There are more lexical morphemes in each language than grammatical ones. But in speech, the average frequency of using a grammatical morpheme (especially relational) is higher than the average frequency of using a lexical morpheme. Lexical morphemes are part of "unlimited inventories", in a living language they cannot be counted; grammatical form "closed systems", it is possible to count.
Zero morphemes are morphemes with a zero exponent that conveys some grammatical meaning. The zero exponent is the meaningful absence of an affix or function word, regularly contrasted with the presence of an affix or function word in correlative cases. The zero morpheme is included at a certain point in the speech chain into a linear sequence of segmental morphemes: white|#.
Depending on what exactly the zero exponent is opposed to, there are several types of zero morphemes. The most famous - null ending, or zero inflection. Zero suffix (plural Bulgarians, peasants - with ed h Bulgarian, and so on with the suffix -in-; I will overcome owls, I will appreciate, I will tell - when carrying in with suff -a- (I decide), -va- (I overcome), willow /yva tell). There are no zero prefixes in r yaz (in Bulgarian, prefixes of comparative and superlatives po- and nai- are obligatory and unique convey this meaning; #|khubav - good, in-khubav - - nai-khubav). An example of a zero morpheme opposed to a function word: the absence of an auxiliary verb "it's time for him to go" in the presence of such a verb in "it was (will be) time for him to go."
Operational morphemes (suprasegmental morphemes) are described as operations performed on segmental morphemes (or their combinations) in order to express some grammatical meaning. Morpheme-operations bound to single word- meaningful alternations of morphemes, changes in stress and tone, morphemes-repetitions. There are also suprasegmental morphemes that appear only in a phrase (intonation and word order); all morphemes-operations (as well as zero morphemes) are grammatical, that is, a kind of analogues of affixes and auxiliary words.
Meaningful alternation turns into an exponent of a special morpheme if it becomes the main or even the only indicator of grammatical opposition (old, old -> old, cracked, green-green, naked, naked - naked: palatalization is a noun indicator, non-palatalized consonant is an adjective indicator; DP the palatalization of the last phoneme of the root performs here a function similar to the function of a suffix; here a certain operation took place on the phonemic composition of the root; English house - house / settle, extent - stretch / extend - the sonority of the last consonant distinguishes the verb from the noun; vowel alternation - in the German plural form many entities are formed with Umlaut (reversal) of the vowel in the root: mutter - mutter; in English, reversal may be the only indicator of the plural: tooth-teeth, mouse-mice; vowel alternations (ablaut) are used in Germanic languages in the forms of strong verbs sing- sang-sung - outwardly, facts of this kind are similar to transfi xation and often combined with it in the concept of "internal inflection").
In some cases, truncation of part of the word / root is used, that is, the alternation of the corresponding phonemes with zero (fr long longue - long long; according to the end of the gender form, the gender belongs to the root; the m gender is formed from the w by discarding the last consonant. Negative / subtractive morpheme).
A stress shift is considered as a morpheme in those cases when it becomes the main indicator of some grammatical meaning(prOgrEs, ImpOrt, IncrEase; stress on the second syllable in all verb forms, a common feature opposed to stress on the first syllable as a sign of noun; stress performs the same function as in r progressing) or a verbal entity (prediction); the word of one part of speech is formed from the word of another part of speech by the operation of shifting the stress. , trouble-troubles; these oppositions give in some cases “minimal pairs”, differing only in the place of stress with the identical composition of phonemes - sail-sail, farm-farm, face-face, .. A certain type of stress becomes the main indicator of the number (along with a set endings).
As a morpheme-operation, one can also consider the elimination / weakening of stress when turning a significant word into a function (adverbs - into a preposition, a pronoun into an article).
Differences in syllabic accent (tones) can also play the role of a grammatical morpheme: in the Amerindian language, Tlingit, in the West African language, Igbo.
A peculiar type of morpheme operations are repetitions of segments - parts of words or whole word forms, reduplication (doubling). May be complete or partial; can be combined with the replacement of individual phonemes in a repeated segment by others. As a morpheme, a postor can be qualified where a grammatical meaning is associated with it: repetitions with the meaning of intensity of quality (blue-blue), intensity, duration, repetition of action (walk-walk); repetitions that convey the meaning of a plural (in Malay, in Hausa, in Korean). In ancient Indo-European languages, partial reduplication - doubling the initial consonant of a root accompanied by a vowel - was used in a verb to express the meaning of the perfect (Latin cecidi I fell - from cado I fall). The isolated remainder of the reduplication is preserved in the Russian forms let's give, give, give.
Reduplication can be described in another way - as the addition of a special segment, a chameleon affix. The phonemic composition of the exponent of this affix is variable and is determined each time depending on the composition of the exponent of the root to which the affix is attached. It is necessary to distinguish repetition from repetitions-grammatical morphemes as a means of organizing the root (children's words: mom, dad, ...; onomatopoeia: cuckoo, ding-ding; emotionally saturated formations: containers-bars, tyap-blunder).
What ensures the unity of the morpheme in the presence of discrepancies between its variants?
With regard to exponential variation: some linguists believe that the unity of a morpheme is only in the unity of its function (then –ed in worked and the alternation operation in wrote turn out to be variants of the same morpheme); others believe that morpheme variants are where there is a unity of function (identity of meaning), + certain formal connections between different exponents: belonging to the same type, identity of positional characteristics, regular alternations of phonemes. If there are no formal connections with a common function, one should not talk about variants of one morpheme, but about homosemy (equivalence) of different morphemes (exactly -ed and worked; functionally identical morphemes belonging to the same type, if they are not connected by alternations - the suffix suffers from "n" in "dan" and "t" in "taken"; endings of 1 l unit h "y" in "I sit" and "m" in "eat"; tv p "th" table, "y" bone, " oh "mountain"). Homosemia of flexion is typical of parallel conjugation and declination discharges.
With regard to meaningful variation: the unity of the morpheme is created by the unity of the exponent. The boundaries of meaningful variation, that is, the polysemy of a morpheme, are determined on the basis of the criterion of semantic connection between meanings, which is based on linguistic intuition and is not amenable to formalization (between the two meanings of verb suffix, a moment of connection is felt). Where there is no semantic connection, we should talk about homonymy of morphemes (suffix "k" with a diminutive meaning (berry), with the meaning of gender (neighbor), with the meaning "carrier of the sign" (shotgun, ambulance); homonymous prefixes c- /co- in the meaning of “away” (jump, get off) and in the meaning of the connection (fasten, convene)). Sometimes the use of homonymous affixes creates homonymous words (Komsomol member - girl and newspaper).
An important aspect of syntagmatic relations between linguistic elements is valence, that is, the ability of a linguistic element to connect with other elements of the same level (morphemes with morphemes). A huge number of morphemes in all languages are multivalent (multivalent). They are found in a significant number of combinations in other morphemes (for example, the ending 1l unit h /u/ in pryaz, serving all verbs, except for eat, ladies, create, weed - the ending /m/ has a limited valency. Multivalent morphemes are opposite univalent (univalent) (the root buzhyn in the word boiled ham; cranberries, raspberries; the univalent suffix -ih- in the groom, -adya- in the popadya, -arus- in the glass beads). weeks - Tuesday univalent root tues+multivalent root day).
3. Grammatical structure of the word and questions of word formation
Morphemes are the building blocks of words. According to the presence / absence of form formation, all words of most languages are divided into two structural types: multiform (changeable) and monoform (unchangeable). According to the word-formation structure, words are divided into derivatives / non-derivatives.
We call a single-form word one that is represented in the language in only one word form - a word with no form formation (yesterday, skipping, here, alas, over, because of, and). A monoform word can be monomorphemic (yesterday, here, alas) and polymorphemic (because of, again, skipping). Morphemic composition is constant!
A polyform word is one that exists as a set of word forms. The lexeme does not coincide here with the word form, but is an abstraction from all forms of the given set (synthetic and analytical) (the lexeme to read is not only the infinitive to read, but also I read, read, read, read, I will read, I would read, etc.). Words like kangaroo, coat - in terms of functioning should be recognized as multi-form, only all their word forms are homonymous, so that the lexeme and word form here materially coincide. A polyform word is built in its different word forms partially/completely from different morphemes. The constant part, built in all word forms from the same morphemes and called the formative (or lexical) basis of this word (FOS). Variable part, built in different word forms from different morphemes; in each word form is represented by a specific formative (or formant). The set of formative formatives, with the help of which all word forms of a given word are formed, is called the formative (or inflectional) paradigm of this word.
FOS can consist of one root (table) or from a root/s and one/several affixes (table). FOS may include simulfixes (old - a morpheme expressed by a sign of palatalization of the latter according to). The basis of the word (FOS) is a part of the word that necessarily contains the root / roots and is repeated without changing its morphemic composition in all grammatical forms of this word.
The formative of a synthetic (simple) word form can be monomorphemic (for example, one ending, also zero) / polymorphemic, consisting of 2 or more affixes (typically for a Russian verb: look-and-sh, ne-l-a, go-m-te ). The formative may include suprasegmental morphemes (formatives of word forms unit h "horn" include the stressed root as an indicator of the number).
It happens that a multiform word does not have a single basis, since its different word forms are formed from different roots - cases of suppletivism (to go: part from id-, the other part from sh (ed)). Here, instead of FOS, we have several partial, or partial, form-building bases.
Sometimes it is convenient to single out the partial bases of individual groups along with the FOS (hare, FOS hare-, partial bases: unit h hare (o) k, pl h hare-). One of the partial stems may outwardly coincide with FOS, differing only in the presence of a zero affix (peasant: partial stem unit h = FOS + -in-, partial stem plural h = FOS + # suff). Partial stems may differ not in segmental affixes, but in suprasegmental morphemes.
The concepts of a derivative word and derivative have different meanings in synchronic and diachronic linguistics. With the synchronic approach, the derivativeness coincides with the word-formation motivation of the word. A derivative, or word-building motivated, is only a word, next to which in a given language and in the same era there is another, related to it formally and in terms of meaning, a “producing” (word-building motivating) word / combination of words (carpenter, dandelion, eighty) . Where there is no producer, there is no derivative. A word that is word-formation unmotivated from the point of view of the linguistic relations of a given era is considered as non-derivative (table, eight, ten).
In the diachronic approach, a word is also recognized as a derivative, which at some time in the past was formed from another, which later disappeared or lost its semantic connection with it, and, accordingly, was once motivated, although later it lost its motivation. Etymological analysis reveals this lost motivation and reveals the former derivation of words that are non-derivative from the point of view of later eras (tailor - non-derivative, historically was derivative; chair, eight, ten - the hypotheses are debatable). In principle, it can be said that each word was earlier or later formed from some word/phrase, that is, it is derivative in the diachronic sense, but it is possible to establish the concrete fact of derivative only for some part of the words.
synchronous performance. Comparing the derived word with its generating word/phrase, we single out: 1) the common part of the two compared units - the generating word-formative basis and 2) the specific part/feature in which the derived word differs from the generating one - the word-formative format (SF) (pea compared to peas: generating stem pea-, SF from the suffix –ov and a set of endings). When distinguishing stems and formatives, it is important to take into account historical and living phoneme alternations, as well as possible stress shifts.
The generating stem (as well as the formative stem in a polyform word) necessarily contains a root/roots; + may contain affixes. Often the generating derivational basis turns out to be a derivative of some other, that of a third, etc., as seen in the derivational chain (quick-speed-speed-speed).
The directly generating stem and the nearest (last) derivational formative are called the direct constituents of the analyzed derived stem (NS). The “further” producing bases and formatives included in its composition will be its further components, up to the final components - individual corphemes. The word-formation structure at each stage of the analysis is binary (binary), including only two NS. Each of these two components can be divided into parts, but the identification of these parts is the task of the subsequent stages of the analysis. Having gone through all the stages, we come to the final components - the same morphemes, but we see them no longer on the same plane, but in perspective: we found out the morphemic composition of the word form or base, as well as the structure of this composition, the way it is organized.
Other types of generating stems and derivational formats:
1. not only the basis of the generating word, but also a separate word form (nothing-nothing at all; you-stick) can act as a generating basis.
2. In addition to suffixal, there are other types of derivative words - prefixal (carry away from carry), prefix-suffixal (Volga from Volga), derivatives using morpheme operations (gol from naked, to impOrt from Import).
3. Sometimes a word-formative formative consists only of a set of formatives of individual word forms, so that the derived word outwardly differs from the generating one only in its formative paradigm. This phenomenon (Smirnitsky) is called morphological conversion. Its essence is that the formation of a word occurs without the help of a special word-building affix (or simulfix), only by a paradigm shift (master-to-master; husband-wife, Alexander-Alexandra, Eugene-Eugene, salt-salt, milk-nada, blue -sin, scientist adj - scientist noun).
4. Syntactic conversion - the signal for the formation of a derivative word is only a change in syntactic compatibility (adverb behind (left behind) - preposition behind (behind the house)).
The word-formation structure of compound words (that is, those containing more than one root). Some are the result of the contraction of phrases (moidodyr); the generating basis here is equal to the sum of the terms of the components, and the composition of the word-formative format includes the fixed order of these components and the “unifying” stress. Others - the addition of foundations (Novgorod, forest-steppe, primary source, pelirojo, Arbeitstag). With a pure stem formation, the generating stem is equal to the sum of the terms of the stems, and the word-formative formative is either the same as in contraction (Novgorod) or also includes an interfix. Others - the addition of stems in combination with the simultaneous addition of an “external” affix (in addition to the interfix; for example, railway: railway-, road-; interfix a, suffix n, set of endings adj; non-segmental elements - a fixed order of components and a unifying main stress on the second term ); a special variety - blue-eyed, silkworm, lumberjack, instead of an external derivational affix, a formative paradigm is used that is unusual for the second component of addition (no adjective "eyed", noun "sec", "strand")).
Considering the word-formation structure, it is important to distinguish between:
1. Regular formations - are built according to one, repeatedly repeating model and reproduce without deviations a certain formal and semantic relationship with the generating word / phrase (moist-wet, gray-gray, rough-rough; Kyiv - Kyiv). Irregular formations - a single, semantic or formal deviation inherent in an individually given word from the general division (good - to become prettier; meager - to grow thin; Kursk - Kursk).
2. Productive models are models by which new words are formed (with suffixes -tel-, -shchik / -chik, -k- and noun formatives r 1 skl). The series of words formed by productive models are open, words they cannot be counted. Unproductive models are those that do not create new words (except for comic formations). With suff – her, -zn, -life (literacy; life, fear; otichna, whiteness, etc.). These are closed ranks, all members of which can be counted.
There are cases that, with a synchronous approach to word-formation issues, are on the verge between derivative and non-production (put on shoes -y-; -nya- take off, take, take away, accept, raise). Such words can be called mutually motivated. They are also called derivatives of related bases. A related stem is a common part of two or more mutually motivated words, containing their root and never acting as a FOS or word form, but always only as part of some FOS.
Abbreviated and complex abbreviated words have a special word-formation structure. Abbreviated words are formed by truncation, discarding sound segments from the composition of the full word (Lena from Elena, Katya from Ekaterina, deputy from deputy, special from specialist, metro from metro, bus from omnibus). The generating stem is not directly visible in the derived word, it is not contained in it materially. But it is guessed, since the connection with the unabbreviated word remains clear for the consciousness of the speakers. The function of a word-formative formative is performed here by withdrawals from the composition of the generating stem. "Negative", "subtractive" derivational format.
Compound words, abbreviations, or univerbative abbreviations are formed from phrases. They are the result of truncation of parts of the words included in the full name, and the merging of the remaining parts into one word (local committee from the local committee, selmag from the village store). Some abbreviated words have an etymological connection with the full name and do not correspond to the actual meaning (the state farm is not equal to the Soviet economy). The composition of the formative of compound words includes, in addition to truncations, a unifying stress. Compound words are a phenomenon characteristic of the modern stage in the development of many languages. Abbreviations like Lena, Sanya appear in everyday speech, while compound words are usually born in the sphere of official relations and therefore are guided not by the live sound of the word, but by its spelling. It is especially clearly manifested in the initial abbreviations, made up of some of the initial letters of the words included in their full name (TYuZ). Many initial abbreviations are not even pronounced in accordance with the sound meanings of the letters (like the Youth Theater, Higher Educational Institution, HPP), but in accordance with their alphabetical names (USSR, Moscow State University, VDNKh). Sometimes there is also a spelling by the names of letters (chepe, eeze). In some abbreviations, the last component acts as a complete basis with its inherent shaping (maternity hospital, savings bank, spare parts) or as a word form (head of department, manager). Sometimes truncation is carried out at the expense of the middle and even the initial parts of the bases (trade mission, moped, smog from smoke). There are abbreviations formed with the use of interfixes (workday, food trade) in r yaz. On the basis of abbreviations, new derivatives arise (Komsomolets, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Gazik).
Analytical formations have a special grammatical structure. They are combinations of significant and functional words, functioning as one significant word.
1. analytical formations that function as word forms of a word that also has non-analytic (synthetic) word forms - analytical forms. Analytical forms of verb tenses (I will write, I'll write); moods (would write, I should write); verbal form (I am writing, I was writing); pledge, passive; adjectives and adverbs have degrees of comparison. Combinations of significant words with prepositions can be legitimately considered as analytical forms of cases (of my friend; to the city). Combinations with the article in English, German, French, Spanish and other languages are analytical forms of expressing certainty/uncertainty. Sometimes the analytic form can be synonymous with an existing synthetic one (this room is warmer=this room is warmer; the son of my friend=my friend's son). In other cases, the analytical form is opposed to the synthetic form within the framework of the grammatical category (I will write: I write: I wrote - the category of tense; I would write: you write: write the category of mood; I am (was) writing: i write (wrote) - the category of aspect). It happens that in the words of one category the grammeme is expressed by means of a synthetic, in the words of another - by means of an analytical form (strong-stronger-strongest; interesting-more interesting-the most interesting). Formatives of analytical forms have a complex structure: they are usually represented by a combination of a functional word and affixes as part of a significant word (on the table; on the table). The individual components of such a complex format can be correlated with the individual components of the complex grammatical meaning of the form.
2. Analytical formations that function as a whole lexeme in the totality of its forms - analytical words. To pride oneself - be proud. Used always only with a reflexive pronoun, which is a function word.
4. Parts of speech
Most experts consider phonology (the study of the functional side of speech sounds) as a section (part) of phonetics (the study of speech sounds); some see the two disciplines as non-overlapping branches of linguistics.
The difference between phonology and phonetics is that the subject of phonetics is not limited to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener ( perceptual phonetics).
Phonetics- a section of linguistics in which the sound structure of the language is studied, that is, the sounds of speech, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three aspects of speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:
- 1. Acoustics of speech. She studies the physical signs of speech.
- 2. Anthropophonics or physiology of speech. It studies the biological signs of speech, that is, the work performed by a person during pronunciation (articulation) or perception of speech sounds.
The subject of phonetics is close connection between oral, internal and writing. Unlike other linguistic disciplines, phonetics explores not only the language function, but also the material side of its object: the work of the pronunciation apparatus, as well as the acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and their perception by native speakers. Unlike non-linguistic disciplines, phonetics considers sound phenomena as elements of a language system that serve to translate words and sentences into material sound form without which communication is impossible. In accordance with the fact that the sound side of the language can be considered in the acoustic-articulatory and functional-linguistic aspects, phonetics proper and phonology are distinguished in phonetics. phonetics sound speech morphemic
Among the linguistic sciences phonetics occupies a special place. Phonetics deals with the material side of language, with sound means devoid of independent meaning.
Distinguish between general and private phonetics, or the phonetics of individual languages. General phonetics studies the general conditions of sound formation, based on the capabilities of the human pronunciation apparatus (for example, labial, anterior lingual, posterior lingual consonants are distinguished, if we mean the pronunciation organ that determines the main features of the consonant, or stop, fricative, if we mean the method of forming an obstacle to passing from the lungs of a jet of air necessary for the formation of a consonant), and also analyzes the acoustic characteristics of sound units, for example, the presence or absence of a voice when pronouncing different types of consonants. Universal classifications of sounds (vowels and consonants) are built, which are based partly on articulatory, partly on acoustic features. General Phonetics also studies the patterns of combinations of sounds, the influence of the characteristics of one of the neighboring sounds on others (various types of accommodation or assimilation), coarticulation; the nature of the syllable, the laws of combining sounds into syllables and the factors that determine syllable division; phonetic organization of the word, in particular stress. She studies the means that are used for intonation; the pitch of the main tone of the voice, the strength (intensity), the duration of the individual parts of the sentence, pauses.
Phonology- a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound system of a language and the functioning of sounds in a language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is oppositions ( opposition) phonemes, which together form the phonological system of the language.
Phonemma is the smallest unit of the sound structure of a language. The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of the language (morphemes and words).
Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.
Phonology is often singled out as a discipline separate from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in the broad sense) - the acoustics of speech and the physiology of speech are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology.
Phonology- part of the science of phonetics. Appeared 30 years last century. One of the first to point out the need for a separate study of the semantic properties of sounds was the representative Kazan linguistic schools(neo-grammatical direction) Baudouin de Courtenay. He used the term phoneme”, although he invested in it a slightly different meaning from the modern one. Genuine creator of phonology considered a representative Prague linguistic schools(structuralism) - N.S. Trubetskoy. Like all structuralists, Trubetskoy was based on the ideas of Saussure, and he based his reasoning on the dichotomy of language and speech. In Fundamentals of Phonology (1939) he points out that if there is the science of speech sounds (phonetics), then there must be the science of the sounds of language. He suggested calling it phonology.
Linguists are faced with the need to distinguish in the variety of audible sounds of a given language a limited number of basic sound units - phonemes. . I.A. Baudouin de Courtune distinguished between such concepts as sound (phonation) and phoneme as the mental equivalent of sound.
Sounds are combined into phonemes not acoustically. principle, and by commonality of functional, i.e. if the sounds are pronounced differently, but perform the same function (form the same root, prefix), then these are varieties of the phoneme. The concepts of "phoneme" and "speech sound" do not coincide, because A phoneme can consist of more than just one sound. Two phonemes can sound as one sound (stitch). At the heart of different variants of pronouncing the same sound is something common, this common will be a phoneme.
Phoneme definitions:
Phoneme - set of distinguishing features, a set of features that distinguish one phoneme from another.
Phoneme - minimum expression plan unit, which represents text division result into smaller parts.
Phoneme - abstract unit, which is implemented in speech as a class of allophones.
Phoneme- This the smallest unit of the sound system of a language, which is element of the sound shell of words and morphemes that serves them discrimination.
In speech, we do not pronounce phonemes, but sounds (allophones). Some linguists believe that the phoneme is a one-sided unit, that is, it has only a signifier. Others believe that the phoneme is a two-sided unit, they believe that signifier phoneme is meaningful function.
1. The semantic function is the main one. 2. signal - the appearance of a phoneme in any position can signal something.
Phonemes can enter into - paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations - distributive and into relations of identity and difference (opposition)
The main concept, from which Trubetskoy repelled, was the concept of PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITION.
PhD is a sound opposition that differentiates the meaning of two words of a given language. Members of FO are called phonological units.
Opposition types:
privative (two members of the opposition, elements are considered according to one sign. The element that has a sign is called marked, the element that does not have it is unmarked)
gradual (several members of the opposition, each of the components has the desired attribute, but to varying degrees)
equipotent (all elements are logically equal and each member of the opposition has his own feature set, some of these signs will be common to all members of the opposition, and some of the signs will be differential)
Trubetskoy - 3 principles of classification.
In relation to the opposition system as a whole
one-dimensional (common features are not characteristic of any of the oppositions of this language: “d”, “t” are consonants, noisy, stop, solid, front-lingual, etc.) and multidimensional FD (common features are found in other oppositions of this language: "b", "k" will be repeated in opposition to "p", "g")
proportional and isolated
II In relation to members of the opposition.
private
stepped (gradual)
equivalent (equivalent)
IIIBy volume of sense-distinguishing power
Constants ("m", "l"),
Neutralizable ("d", "t")
Trubetskoy formulated the basic principle of identifying and analyzing a phoneme: If in a given language the differences between two given sounds make it possible to distinguish between different words or different grammatical forms, these sounds belong to different phonemes.
According to their phonological composition, the languages of the world, more than 200 of which were analyzed by Trubetskoy in his work, are divided into three characteristics:
by the total number of phonemes in the language
by the presence of particular phonological systems or classes of phonemes and their ability to combine with each other
by DP systems, i.e. by the rules of neutralization.
Phonology is a linguistic discipline in which unity has not yet been achieved on fundamental theoretical issues. The divergence of opinions is especially great in the definition of the phoneme. There are various phonological schools:
Moscow
(they don’t consider the sound in isolation, they consider it in a morphophoneme, if for example we change the sound “and” to “s”, the meaning does not change, then these are variants of the same phoneme)
Leningrad
(they proceed from the acoustic characteristics of the phoneme, if specific characteristics of the sound can be distinguished, this will be an independent phoneme)
London
Copenhagen
Prague
Two extreme points of view on the phoneme: allophone - a variant of a phoneme and phoneme - a class of allophones.
Correlative oppositions are those whose members differ only in one feature, they coincide in all others. They, in turn, can be closed (two terms - d-t).; open (more than 2 terms p-t-k), enhance any feature, for example, pitch.
The organization of phonemes into a system of oppositions is different in each given language, determined by the originality of the language, the proportions of vowels and consonants, their distribution by position, etc. Thus, the description of the phonetics of k.-l. language should be represented not by a random enumeration of sounds, but in the form of a consistent system covering the number and grouping of phonemes.
Perceptive function - the ability to perceive the sounds of speech and their combinations with the organ of hearing.
Sounds not like physical. phenomenon, but as a public one.
The phonemic composition of the language. Distribution model. Developed them Americans when they began to study the languages of the Indians. At the time of colonization, there were several 1000, and now and at the time of study - several dozen. In the field, they began to study their languages. Listened to and recorded the spoken word. They did not have a written language. They had to divide this sounding stream into minimal, further indivisible units . To find out independent units or not, began to use substitution method (substitution), and developed the concept distribution (environment). For any distribution model, the environment is important.
Contrasting (only she gives us independent units). If in the same environment replacing one element with another changes the value, then we are dealing with independent units, which are in contrast distribution.
Free variation. If the replacement of one element by another brings no new meaning, that is free variation.
Additional. If two elements never meet in the same environment, then they are combinatorial variants of one and the same phonemes.Variants of one phoneme.
Y and I. And - impossible after a solid sign. And only after it can be.
Muscovites believe that these are combinatorial variants of one phoneme, while Petersburgers believe that these are different phonemes. Petersburgers believe that if we can pick up some specific characteristics of the sound, the sound will be a representative of an independent phoneme. Muscovites do not consider the phoneme in isolation, only in the environment, and if this environment coincides, then these sounds are different phonemes. And if they do not exist in the same environment, then this is one phoneme. All the confusion is due to the fact that there are two icons in Russian.
Each phoneme was described as features. There are two types of signs:
Integral features (a common feature for this phoneme and other phonemes)
For example, "a" is not nasal. There are others that are not nasal.
Differential, distinguishing features. sum differential signs one phoneme differs from another. There is even such a definition for a phoneme (A phoneme is a bundle of differential features (their role is emphasized).
Trubetskoy singled out the concept opposition. Its essence lies in the fact that any phoneme is set as common, as well as distinctive differential signs. If they were not there, the phoneme could not delimit the meanings of words- this is one of the main functions of the phoneme:
(1. Sense distinction. The phoneme has no meaning, but it is focused on distinguishing meaning values. 2. Signal function. The junction of two different phonemes means a syllable division.)
Opposition types:
Several members of the opposition, absolutely equal, there is common signs, but there are also own signs, That's why hierarchy cannot be built. Most members of the opposition that occur in speech are of this type.
Several members of the opposition, each of which has the characteristics of interest to us. But everything have symptoms to varying degrees. (For example, the openness of vowels. A E E I (by decreasing the sign).
Equip flight
Gradual
Private
2 opposition members:
Has the required trait. Marched member of the opposition
Deprived of it. He labeled member of the opposition
Example: P - B, if we are interested in sonority, then marked b, not labeled P.
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of a language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation. Phonology is an inseparable part and core of phonetics. Phonology deals with the study of sounds and other sound phenomena in terms of their use in language, their role in ensuring the functioning of the language as a means of communication. Trubetskoy contrasted phonetics and phonology and defined their tasks: phonetics is the science of the material side of the sounds of human speech, phonology studies those sound differences that affect the distinction between meanings. Phonology describes the relationship of distinctive features, as well as the rules for their combination in the composition of sounds and their sequences. The relationship between phonology and phonetics boils down to the fact that the beginning of any phonological description is to identify meaningful sound oppositions; the phonetic description is taken as the starting point and material base. The main unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is the oppositions (oppositions) of phonemes, which together form the phonological system of the language.
34. The main tasks of lexicology. Sections of lexicology.
Lexicology- a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language and the word as a unit of vocabulary.
One of the main tasks of lexicology is the study of the meanings of words and phraseological units, the study of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and other relationships between the meanings of words. The scope of lexicology also includes changes in the vocabulary of the language, reflection in the vocabulary of social, territorial, professional characteristics of people who speak the language (they are usually called native speakers). Within the framework of lexicology, layers of words are studied, distinguished for various reasons: by origin (original and borrowed vocabulary), by historical perspective (obsolete words and neologisms), by sphere of use (popular, special, colloquial, etc.), by stylistic coloring (interstyle and stylistically colored vocabulary).
Sections of lexicology: 1) Onomasiology- explores the process of naming objects. 2) Semasiology- explores the meaning of words and phrases. 3) Phraseology- studies the phraseological composition of the language, the relationship of words among themselves and with other units of the language. 4) Onomastics- studies already existing proper names in the broad sense of the word.
5) Etymology- studies the origin of words and vocabulary in general. 6) Lexicography- deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. 7) Stylistics- studies the connotative meaning of words and expressions.
35. Word as a subject of lexicology. Word definition problem.
A word is the smallest relatively independent meaningful unit of a language.
There is a discrepancy between the two approaches to the definition of the word, associated with different interpretations of service words. The first point of view equates functional words with significant ones, because both those and others have a sign of mobility in the proposal. The second point of view contrasts significant words with auxiliary ones, which are not able to make up a separate sentence. In Russian, some combinations of prepositions with nouns have become indissoluble and turned into adverbs, but in many cases Russian spelling retains separate spelling (by eye). One of the difficulties is associated with complex forms: r. I will read, I would read; English has read, will read, is reading, has been reading. – it is possible to insert other words between these components: I will read this book with interest; he has never read this book: 1. Combination of words between two spaces. 2. Single stress (phonetic approach) 3. The principle of wholeness. 4.Syntactic.
In order for linguistic communication to take place, the production of sound is necessary. Sound is an acoustic action that oscillates of different duration, scope and frequency. The study of the structure and dynamics of sound waves belongs to acoustic (physical) aspect
The cause of acoustic waves is the articulatory (physiological) movements of the organs of speech. The study of the system of organs of speech and the features of articulatory movements belongs to articulatory aspect the science of the sound structure of a language.
But the speech process, which includes articulatory movements and acoustic waves, is possible only because the sound is somehow understood. But understanding and acoustic-articulatory actions have a different nature, are structured differently and require special study.
Acoustic waves and articulatory movements are characterized by continuity (non-discretion). There are no borders in them that would separate one sound from another. And understanding requires discreteness, discontinuity, because in order to understand something, this something must be remembered. It is possible to memorize only a finite number of individual units, and for this it is necessary to turn acoustic-articulatory continuity into phonological discreteness. This goal is served by coding acoustic-articulatory continuity in phonological discrete units. In other words, certain sound representations must exist in the human mind, the number of which must be specific and finite.
So the third phonological aspect The science of the sound structure of a language deals with the study of the creation and functioning of sound images, with the help of which continuously sounding speech is encoded. The science of the sound structure of a language, therefore, must deal with the issue of correlating the continuity of sound with the discreteness of its coding in sound images.
This dual problem has led linguists to speak of two sciences, or two aspects of the science of the sound structure of language. So, for example, N.S. Trubetskoy, the creator of the phonology of the Prague Linguistic School, believed that there should be two linguistic sciences about the sound structure of the language - phonetics and phonology . At the same time, he followed the theory of F. de Saussure, who expressed the opinion that there should be two linguistic sciences - linguistics of language and linguistics of speech. The science that studies the sounds of speech, N.S. Trubetskoy proposed to call phonetics, and he proposed to call the science that studies the sounds of a language, or phonemes, phonology. Speech sounds and phonemes, in his opinion, are different units that should be studied separately from each other.
The theory of N.S. Trubetskoy was based on the philosophy of positivism, which, in turn, grew out of dualistic philosophy. In accordance with dualistic philosophy, when describing any object, two models of this object are built, one of which corresponds to the reflection of this object in the sense organs, and the other corresponds to the reflection of the object in mental constructions, most often corresponding to the functional role of the object. The dualist philosopher treats both of these models as two different entities.
In many textbooks, built in accordance with the theory of N.S. Trubetskoy, phonemes and speech sounds are described separately, as two different entities, as two different units.
The second point of view on the relationship between phonetics and phonology belongs to our Russian scientist Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, who believed that the phoneme and the sound of speech are ontologically the same unit, which phonology considers from a functional point of view. Therefore, from the position of L.V. Shcherba, there is one science about the sound structure of the language - phonetics, within which there is a phonological section that studies the sounds of speech from the functional side. From this point of view, the phoneme is a functionally restructured class of speech sounds. Thus, both in the theory of N.S. Trubetskoy and in the theory of L.V. Shcherba, speech sounds are phonetic units, and phonemes are phonological.
The disadvantage of this theory is its initial position, which states that speech sounds are acoustic-articulatory units. But, as stated above, from the point of view of acoustic articulation, the sound stream is not divided into speech sounds.
The third point of view proposed in this manual comes from the fact that there is only one linguistic science about the sound structure of a language - phonology, and phonetics is its acoustic-articulatory aspect. Such an approach requires recognizing not only phonemes, but also language sounds and speech sounds as phonological units of varying degrees of generalization.
Any sound discreteness in the speech flow and in the language system is phonological by its very nature. Phonology as the science of the sound structure of a language studies two problems.
Discrete division of a continuous sound stream as a result of its coding using discrete sound images.
Different degrees of generalization of the obtained sound units. With this approach, the following units of various degrees of generalization are distinguished: speech sound - language sound - phoneme - morphoneme (see the following presentation - Degrees of generalization of sound units).
Within phonology, phonetics stands out, which studies the relationship of phonological units of varying degrees of generalization to the acoustic-articulation properties of speech, resulting in phonologization (discretization) of both the speech flow itself and the acoustic-articulation properties of phonological units.
Phonologization refers to the perception of a continuous speech stream as a sequence of discrete units. At the same time, each discrete unit, in turn, is perceived as a kind of homogeneous whole. For example, L.V. Shcherba divided the sound [a] into five parts on a magnetic tape, and then listened to each of these parts. The first segment sounded like a sound [ъ], similar to a very short [s], the second segment resembled a short sound [e], the third segment [ά], the fourth segment again resembled the sound [e], and the fifth - the sound [ъ]. Thus, in the general sound, only the central part resembles the sound [a]. But if we listen to the whole segment again, we will hear a single sound [a]. When cutting a soft consonant into 2 parts: the first part was perceived as a hard consonant sound, and the second part as an i-shaped or i-shaped sound. However, the whole fragment sounded like a soft consonant. The sound [k] when cut broke up into sounds [t] and [x]. However, in general, the sound [k] in the flow of speech (not isolated) receives its original qualities. In isolation in the speech stream, it does not stand out at all. Examples of non-coincidence between continuous sound and artificially separated sound (with the help of electronic equipment) are extremely numerous, and they indicate that a rather complex work is going on in the human mind to form integral sound images and their differential features. The psychophysiological mechanism of this process is not yet completely clear, but there is no doubt that the process of phonologization constantly accompanies the comprehension of the speech sound stream.
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