Municipal educational institution

"Secondary school No. 12

working settlement (urban settlement) Progress of the Amur Region "

RESEARCH

"The language of the heroes of the work as a means of comprehending their character"

Nomination: First steps in science

Participants: Soklakova Alena Evgenievna, 10th grade

Ruban Daria Valerienva, 10th grade

Head: Petrochenko Olga Vladimirovna,

teacher of Russian language and literature,

Progress

2011

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3

Main part………………………………………………………………………………5

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….13

List of used literature ………………………………………………. fifteen

INTRODUCTION

The study of literature cannot be considered a process aimed only at obtaining specific knowledge, education of the soul and expansion of the reader's horizons, is, first of all, penetration into the depths and ascent to the heights of the language - "one of the greatest creations of mankind." According to L. Novikov, language is “the most important means of communication, a subtle and flexible tool that helps to form and express human thought”. The question of learning the language of art and literaturework involves, first of all, the definition of the principletsipov selection by the writer of speech means. This selection of motivesis motivated by those specific tasks that it solves badlylike literature special form public consciousness.

A. Tolstoy, in his insistence on the complete individualization of the speech of the character in the work, spoke of the need for the writer to see the gesture of the character that accompanies his speech in order to correctly construct each of his phrases in accordance with what he feels and does at the moment. The speech of the hero connects him with the whole world around him and can be understood precisely in this connection as a phenomenon not only of language as such, but precisely as one or another side of his character on a broader plane. The completeness of the transfer of all colors and shades of living individual speech, reproducing the most diverse aspects of the human character, fixing the real life process of verbal communication, is the most essential feature of the language of fiction.

Just as the character of the work is not a simple copy from this or that person, but a generalization of the properties and qualities of people of a certain type, so his speech is a generalized, characteristic speech, a kind of quotation from the language of that area of ​​life that the writer draws.

The study of the speech of the heroes of the work is one of the means of revealing the artistic content of the work. Artistic content works is found in the study of its poetic forms. The scientific novelty of the proposed work lies in the identification of new facets of the character of the characters, and the language of the characters of the work allows you to take a fresh look at their actions.

Observation of the language of the characters in terms of identifying their characters determines the relevance of this work.

The fact is that each work “teaches itself to read”, our task is to catch the “signals” that the work sends to the reader with its name, originality of style. The writer not only counts on a sympathetic reader, but educates him, leads him imperceptibly and unobtrusively, “prompting” what to look closely at, what to think about, what to compare with, what impression to return to. You just have to try to listen to the writer.

How to do it? Let's try to find the answer by referring to the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". The methodology used in this work can be useful in the analysis of the work for both teachers and students.

Target: To trace how the study of the language of the heroes of the work helps to understand their character.

Tasks:

To get acquainted with the text of the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons".

Study the speech of the characters in the story.

Analyze the relationship between language and characters.

Starting the analysis, it is necessary to accept the following idea as an axiom: reading is unraveling the secret, striving for understanding, familiarizing with the author's "I". Careful reading allows each participant in this process to make their own little “discoveries”.

Hypothesis work is the following provision: if a person’s language can be said about his intellect, his mind, his culture, then the character of a person, his mood, his attitude towards people is manifested in speech.

MAIN PART

In Turgenev's novel, each, even episodic, character speaks his own "special" language. At the same time, the speech of each character reveals his character with maximum completeness, so that even remarks snatched from the text allow us to draw the right conclusions about the speaker.

The speech of the heroes occupies almost the first place in the characterization of Turgenev's heroes. As if emphasizing this, Turgenev very often "on his own" characterizes the manner of speaking.

Especially expressive are Turgenev's statements about Pavel Petrovich's speech. “Pavel Petrovich,” the author writes, “when he got angry, he deliberately said: “eftim” and “efto”, although he knew very well that grammar does not allow such words. This quirk concealed the remainder of the legends of Alexander's time. The then aces, in rare cases, when they spoke their native language, used one-efto, others-ehto; we are, they say, native Russians, and at the same time we are nobles who are allowed to neglect the school rules.

This remark not only characterizes the speech of Pavel Petrovich, but also deepens our understanding of him as a person of a certain social group and a certain outlook.

Other statements of the writer about the speech of the characters are also expressive.

About Bazarov, he says: "This doctor's son was not only not shy, he even answered curtly and reluctantly, and there was something rude, almost impudent in the sound of his voice."

About Odintsova it is said that she "expressed herself in the correct Russian language." The remark is by no means accidental; many aristocratic women did not speak the “correct” Russian language.

Kukshina's characterization is satirically pointed. The "emancipated" lady "dropped her questions one after another with pampered casualness, without waiting for answers: spoiled children talk like that with their nannies."

Also interesting is a cursory description of the speech of the valet Peter (in the epilogue), who "froze with stupidity" and "pronounces all E as Yu: tyupyur, obuspyuchyun."

However, let us dwell in more detail on the language of Evgeny Bazarov.

The speech of Bazarov, the future medical scientist and revolutionary, is simple, clear, usually concise, exceptionally rich in vocabulary, in variety syntactic forms. This is the speech of a person who stands at the height of his contemporary culture - a speech in which we will meet both scientific terms (beetle ditiscus marinatus), and the names of scientists (Liebig, Rademacher, Peluz), and the words of the language public figure(doctrinalism, parliamentarianism), but above all, this is the speech of a Russian person, a democrat who loves and appreciates the Russian language and has an excellent command of it.

Bazarov’s attraction to the people is especially noticeable, because his speech is full of sayings and proverbs, replete with idioms, phraseological turns characteristic of Russian vernacular (the lip is not a fool; his song is sung; what a hunt; Lazarus to sing; you’ll shake the old days; the devil pulled me; no, it’s pipes, seen the views, what kind of binding, you think, etc.); such colloquial words as waving, chatting, tea, wandering around, stuffed, plopped, plop, etc., aphorisms, sometimes somewhat altered: “I burned myself in my own milk, but blows someone else’s water”; "... was everywhere, and the sieve, and in the sieve"; "murder will out"; “grandmother said in two more”; “From a penny candle… Moscow burned down”; “It is not for the gods to burn pots”; "It's good where we are not"; "Poverty is not a vice".

At the same time, Bazarov resolutely rebels against the foreign words that clogged the language of the Russian noble intelligentsia in his time. He does not use them at all in his speech. The exceptions are Latin words that are natural in the speech of a scientist and a physician (utile dulci, pater familias, Latin name swimming beetle), but not at all clogging Bazarov's speech.

The strong, sharp mind of Bazarov is reflected in his "own" Bazarov aphorisms, expressive and well-aimed. For example: "A decent chemist is twenty times more useful than any poet"; “Nature is not a temple, but a workshop, and man is a worker in it”; “I decided to mow everything - go ahead and kick yourself”; “A real person is one ... who must be obeyed or hated”; "The old joke is death, but a new one for everyone."

The literary language includes some phrases of Bazarov, which in form cannot be attributed to aphorisms, but which are very expressive. The words of Bazarov are used: "Oh, my friend, Arkady Nikolaevich! .. I ask you about one thing: do not speak beautifully." Bazarov's meaningful phrases are very expressive, such as "I want to mess with people"; “... Your brother, nobleman, cannot go further than noble humility or noble boiling”; "... but we (that is, nihilists, revolutionaries) want to fight."

Surprisingly marks, expressive, and sometimes figurative epithets, brief diverse assessments given by Bazarov to the people with whom he communicates. In these assessments lies the Bazarov attitude to the character, and those features of him that anyone recognizes. Here are some examples: an archaic phenomenon (about Pavel Petrovich); glorious fellow, kind fellow, ladybug (about Nikolai Petrovich); a woman with a brain, well, she has seen the views, grated kalach (about Odintsova); it's fresh, and untouched, and shy, and silent, and whatever you want (about Katya, Odintsova's sister); soft liberal gentleman; chick (about Arcadia).

The comparisons found in Bazarov's remarks are interesting, indicating a great ability for imaginative thinking, observation, a sharp and courageous mind and a broad outlook. Odintsova, he says: “Flying fish can stay in the air for a while, but soon they should plop into the water, let me flop into my element.”

Bazarov very aptly characterized the measured, somewhat solemn regularity of life in Odintsova’s house: “like rolling on rails,” he assured ... ”

He characterizes his mood to Arkady in the following way: “Ever since I have been here, I have felt nasty, as if I had read Gogol’s letters to the governor of Kaluga.” After an explanation with Pavel Petrovich, which led to a duel, Bazarov exclaims: “Damn it! How beautiful and how stupid! What a comedy we broke off! Learned dogs dance like that on their hind legs.”

Expressive and figurative, but at the same time, a clear, clear, simple speech of Bazarov never turns into " beautiful words»; it is no coincidence that he reproaches Arkady for saying "beautifully." As proverbs and sayings, as well as comparisons in the speech of the "nihilist" always pursue the main goal: to make more clearly, more convincingly the thought that he seeks to express. To Pavel Petrovich’s question: “Don’t you chat like everyone else?” - Bazarov replies: "Than others, but this sin is not sinful." And this is profoundly true. A fighter, a revolutionary, Bazarov must already be fluent in words because in his future activities he will have to convince, prove the correctness of his point of view, and refute the arguments of his ideological enemies.

Bazarov knows how to do all this. In disputes with Pavel Petrovich, he was sometimes careless, did not develop a coherent logical system of evidence, replacing it with a number of sarcastic, contemptuous remarks about the enemy. He sometimes seemed to brush aside his adversary, whom he above all despises. This does not mean at all that Yevgeny Bazarov does not know how to argue in a businesslike manner, strictly logically developing his thought. This is evidenced by his sharp remarks in a dispute with Odintsova, showing his ability to clearly, accurately, directly, reasonably object to the arguments of the interlocutor.

We are referring to the dispute between Bazarov and Odintsova, which began with Bazarov's phrase: "I considered the views of Saxon Switzerland in your album, and you noticed to me that this cannot occupy me."

But Bazarov not only argues. Turgenev puts him in various situations, brings him into contact with various people, compels him, in accordance with this, to speak out on the most diverse occasions and express the most diverse feelings. The richness, variety of intonations of Bazarov's speech is completely exceptional and reflects the breadth and depth of the speaker and the complexity of his character.

Bazarov's speech changes markedly depending on who he is talking to. speech style, vocabulary, its syntactic structure, the predominance of certain intonations to a greater or lesser extent reflect Bazarov's attitude to the speaker. An excellent example of a dialogue between Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich, with the utmost clarity reflecting the attitude of a raznochintsy democrat to his ideological enemy who does not deserve respect, can be a conversation between Bazarov and Kirsanov, the elder, before the duel.

The remarks of the opponents are directly opposite in nature and reflect two completely opposite world relations.

Pavel Petrovich, who decided to "fight seriously", speaks very seriously. His speech is saturated with verbal formulas, which a secular person is accustomed to use not to clarify and clarify thoughts, but to give speech "pleasant in society" a decent form.

Bazarov, on the contrary, emphasizes his frivolous attitude to the duel, which he theoretically denies. He says either simply and directly what he thinks, or contemptuously - ironically lowers the "high" tone of the opponent's speech.

In conversations with Nikolai Petrovich, condescendingly respectful intonations prevail in Bazarov, with Arkady his speech is often didactic in nature, in conversations with his father, condescendingly good-natured intonations sound, often breaking through feigned dryness and coldness.

The rudeness of Bazarov's speech is usually emphasized, often reaching cynicism. Meanwhile, Bazarov sometimes puts a great, sincere feeling into his remarks and expresses it without further ado, simply, strongly. No long tirades can express Bazarov's great, sincere love for his parents in such a way as his short, simple answer to Arkady's question if he loves them: "I love you, Arkady."

The words of the mortally ill Bazarov addressed to his father are imbued with love and tenderness. To the words of Vasily Ivanovich, full of boundless love and sorrow: “Eugene! ... my son, my dear, dear son!” - Bazarov replies: “What, my father?”

Getting acquainted with the image of Bazarov, giving him a description, one can be mistaken, arguing that Bazarov “does not recognize nature as an object of admiration”, that he “denies nature”, based on the well-known Bazarov aphorism. Meanwhile, reading carefully into some of Bazarov's remarks, we come to the conclusion that he loves nature and only denies the aesthetic, abstract contemplation of it.

“The arbor has taken over well ... because acacia and lilac are good guys, they don’t require care.” This is Bazarov speaking to Arkady.

“I, as I drove up here, rejoiced at your birch grove, gloriously stretched out.” This is what he says to his father.

In the above statements by Bazarov, the words “good guys”, attributed to acacia and lilac, “gloriously stretched out”, referring to a grove, directly say that Bazarov loves nature the way people of agricultural labor love it, and admires it, but does not pour out his feelings in "beautiful" words.

The speech of Bazarov's ideological opponent, Pavel Petrovich, is primarily the speech of an aristocratic gentleman. Angloman Kirsanov idealizes the English conservative aristocracy, but his speech is interspersed with French words and expressions, since it was French that was adopted in secular society. To French Pavel Kirsanov resorts most often when he does not find exact words in their own language to express their thoughts in Russian.

The secularism of Pavel Petrovich is also indicated by the verbal formulas common in his speech, adopted in “society” to emphasize respect (at least outwardly and covering contempt and hatred) for the interlocutor: I dare say; I consider it my duty to announce to you; for sim, your Majesty, I can only thank you; you deign to find my habits ridiculous; you deign to joke; sensitively obliged to you ... Pavel Kirsanov uses such expressions mainly in conversation and in disputes with Bazarov; this is natural, because the latter is the only stranger with whom the master communicates in the novel.

Being an aristocrat, Pavel Petrovich characterizes himself as "a man of liberal and loving progress." He is not averse to emphasizing this in conversation, which is reflected in the use of terms and phrases characteristic of the language of the then advanced and conservative noble intelligentsia: “Personality, dear sir, is the main thing ... because everything is built on it”; "logic of history", "materialism", "civilization". Pavel Petrovich’s favorite word is “principe” (principle), which he pronounces in French, but sometimes he is not averse to using colloquial speech, words and expressions of “low style”: “It is very necessary trudge over fifty miles of kissel eat", " the hell with him!», « pull that stupid strap», « in the bag", "How much, I mean, is he months old? Pavel Petrovich’s penchant for rounded, slender and beautiful spectacular phrases (“No, the Russian people are not what you imagine them to be. They sacredly honor traditions, they are patriarchal, they cannot live without faith ...”), does not interfere with him in the heat of a dispute indulge in rudeness towards Bazarov and his like-minded people, calling them blockheads.

Let us briefly dwell on the characteristic features of the speech of other characters in the novel.

The speech of Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov reflects the features of a gentle liberal gentleman. Uncertainty, caution, fuzziness, sometimes verbosity - qualities that are decisively opposite to the qualities of Bazarov, in the highest degree characteristic of the speech of Nikolai Petrovich. For example: " Well? Maybe Bazarov is right; but me I confess, one thing hurts: I was hoping exactly now get close and friendly with Arkady, and coming out that I was left behind ... ". The highlighted words in his speech do not carry a semantic load, they only slow down speech, reflecting the uncertainty inherent in the speaker.

Speaking out, Nikolai Petrovich “marks time”, needlessly repeating the same word: “This is from the Latin nihil, nothing, as far as I can tell; therefore, this word means a person who ... who does not recognize anything? "I'm sorry that your stay in my house got such...such an end."

The speech that Nikolai Petrovich delivers at a farewell dinner in honor of Pavel Petrovich is characteristic: “You are leaving us ... you are leaving us, dear brother,” he began, “of course, not for long; but still I cannot help expressing to you that I… that we… how I… how we…”. Here the "trampling" of Nikolai Petrovich is explained by excitement, but in essence the features of his usual speech are strengthened here.

The speech of Bazarov the father is exceptionally characteristic. The language of Vasily Ivanovich reflects the features of a simple, sincere, talkative, enthusiastic person. Especially vividly in his speech is expressed the desire to show his learning, his progressive views. Names are not uncommon in his speech. prominent people, especially scientists, mythological names. Foreign words are also frequent in his speech. He uses Latin words and sayings more often than his son. Characteristic for Vasily Ivanovich is the use of distorted French words and expressions - the result of his communication with people of the noble circle. He tries to speak German as well, but stops trying when he finds that he can't do it. Vasily Ivanovich willingly uses and foreign words, included in the Russian language, for example medical terms: "etherization", "icter", "palliatives". All this points not only to the desire to “show education”, but also to some awareness of science and his sincere love for it.

Usually the speech of Bazarov the father is somewhat pompous, florid, unnecessarily complicated; sometimes in it we see old formulas of politeness, but in contrast to similar formulas in the speech of Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov, they are the result of a sincere desire to be kind to people he likes. For example, "... and you, gentlemen, let me ask you to the office of a retired veteran"; “And now, I hope, Arina Vlasyevna, that, having satiated your motherly heart, you will take care of saturating your dear guests, because, as you know, the nightingale does not feed fables.” The nature is emotional, enthusiastic, the old man Bazarov is inclined to resort to hyperbole when expressing his feelings: Arkady turned out to be "the great of this world"; turning to Arkady and his son, he exclaims: “How much strength, youth of the most flowering, abilities, talent!”

"Fathers and Sons" belongs to those works that have enriched our literary language with aphorisms, winged words. First of all, the title of the novel became such winged words. The word "nihilist" has also become a winged word. His popularity abroad turned out to be even greater than in Turgenev's homeland.

CONCLUSION

So, in the course of the study, we came to the conclusion that a careful study of the speech of the heroes of the work helps us to better understand their character.

It turns out that Bazarov has a complex character - a raznochint-democrat, a man of broad, sharp and deep mind, with a broad outlook, independent in judgment, direct, sometimes sharp to the point of rudeness, an enemy of chatter and unnecessary prettiness, who knows how to hate and despise and love deeply, deeply .

Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov is a refined Anglomanian aristocrat who does not have any creative abilities at all, everything he has is feigned, fake, although he is smart, honest, educated, handsome, he has a delicate elegant taste, strong convictions, but at the same time his horizons are limited. Contemptuously, he looks down on everyone. In the depths of his soul, he is a conservative, an ardent defender of the old foundations, he is cut off from real life, did not know it, did not have a real idea about the homeland, about the interests of the Russian people. He observed life from the outside, from the height of that eternal aristocratic morality, which he considered unshakable.

In contrast to him, his brother Nikolai Petrovich, according to Bazarov’s apt description, “a nice fellow, kind fellow, ladybug”, is unsure, cautious, gentle, always balanced, emotional to the point of sentimentality, loving and subtly feeling poetry, music, the beauty of nature. A "coward" by nature, he was afraid of new trends, although he understood that it was becoming impossible to live in the old way. That is why, as soon as Arkady arrived home, he asked him to become an assistant, to get closer to him, "to get to know each other well." He was afraid of his brother and did not talk to him about anything. In his son, he saw a "dove", a native by blood and character of a person.

And Bazarov Sr. is a very kind, hospitable host, an original person, a provincial philosopher, he tries to prove his education, is progressive, likes to talk a lot, strives to speak beautifully, solemnly, but it turns out funny. This is a man of work, deeds, at the same time he loved to dream, talk about the greats of this world.

Whether the writer in his novel conveys a friendly conversation or a dispute of ideological enemies, whether he describes the atmosphere of a room or an early morning, whether he talks about the grief of parents losing their beloved son, whether he turns into a satirist, he always remains a great artist of words, able to find words to express his thoughts. the only, irreplaceable word, the only, best phrase.

It is by studying the language of the heroes of the work that you can improve your language, your speech, cultivate the ability to speak not only beautifully and correctly, but also intelligibly, convincingly, so that the listener understands that he is respected and reckoned with his opinion, develop linguistic and aesthetic flair, bit by bit to absorb the real Russian literary language, which should be the pride of the nation.

Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Bulgakov - at all times people read their works, more than one generation grew up on them, and today they constitute the true literary heritage of our country.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE:

Bobylev B.G. "Experience of philological analysis" РЯШ № 2, 1991.

Kachurin M.G. "Organization of research activities of students". Moscow "Enlightenment" 1988

Litvinov V.V. "Learning the Language of Artistic Works at School". Moscow. Uchpedgiz 1988

Petrov S.M. Trofimov I.T. "Creativity of I.S. Turgenev", Moscow Enlightenment 1981

Popova E.V. " Work of fiction as an aesthetic value”, Literature at School No. 4, 1998.

Turgeneva I.S. "Fathers and Sons".

Steinsaltz A. « Simple words". 1993

Additional writings

satirical image of the heroes of the fairy tale by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals” “Fairy tales are one of the most striking creations of the great Russian satirist M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. The fairy tale genre helped the writer speak in an atmosphere of fierce government reaction about the most acute problems of the era, to show those aspects of reality to which the satirist was irreconcilable." The story of how one peasant fed two generals is one of Shchedrin's most vivid and memorable tales. In its center are two generals who find themselves on a desert island. Living in St. Petersburg, the generals did not know any difficulties.

They went to the service in the registry, and this service formed only one skill for them - to wear out - "Accept the assurance of my perfect respect and devotion. Nevertheless, the generals deserved a pension, and a personal cook, and everything that allowed their old age to be full and serene. Waking up one morning in the middle of the island, they experienced a real shock, because it turned out that without outside help these adult men could neither get their own food nor cook it. Creating images of generals, Saltykov-Shchedrin actively uses. A huge discovery for heroes becomes that "human food in its original form flies, swims and grows on trees. According to them, “rolls in the same form will be born as they are served in the morning with coffee. The generals’ inability to serve themselves awakens animal instincts: one bites off an order from another and immediately swallows it. The generals can only write reports and read the Moscow Gazette.

They cannot bring any other benefit to society. A fantastic plot helps the satirist to show the heroes of a fairy tale in the most unattractive way. Heroes appear before the reader as stupid, helpless, miserable creatures. The only salvation for them is a simple man. Frightened to death by their position, the generals fall upon him with anger: “Sleep, couch potato! In their opinion, the peasant exists only to serve their general needs. condemns him for humility, for the ability to forget himself for the sake of satisfying the whims of the master.

Having narrated apples for the generals, the peasant takes one for himself, but sour. He is a great craftsman: “He can make fire and cook food, he knows how to survive on a desert island. The author certainly appreciates this in his hero. Emphasizing his talents, Shchedrin uses hyperbole: it’s not a problem for a man to cook a handful of soup. , and not without reason the writer calls him "a man. However, all the efforts of the peasant are aimed at the good of the generals. He even covers the bottom of the boat for them with swan down, and Saltykov-Shchedrin cannot agree with such behavior of his. The peasant demonstrates ignorance, the habit of a slave position, lack of self-respect, servile devotion.

“And the peasant began to breed beans, how would he please his generals for the fact that they favored him, the parasite, and did not disdain his peasant labor,” the author writes. The generals are ungrateful: their savior receives a glass of vodka and a penny of silver for everything But the saddest thing is that he does not demand more. The author says sarcastically about the general's remuneration: "However, they did not forget about the peasant ... In" The Tale of how one peasant fed two generals, Saltykov-Shchedrin showed not just the relationship of individual generals and a peasant - he described in an allegorical form the relationship between power and people in Russia. The satirist contrasted the ruling elite of society with the disenfranchised masses. Shchedrin's fairy tales are a living picture Russian society torn by contradictions. Admire the skill of the satirist, with which he managed to approach the most complex, acute problems of his time and which he showed in miniature paintings.

Saltykov-Shchedrin, Composition

The story of how one man fed two generals was written by the famous Russian writer Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin in 1869. By this time, the satirist had already been sent into exile for freethinking, but even after returning from it, Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote works that were quite bold for that time. It was possible to publish the story in Russia with great difficulty, overcoming the prohibitions of censorship. Thanks to the efforts of I. S. Turgenev, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin was already published in Paris in 1881 in French.

Despite the fact that there are fantastic elements in The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals, this work belongs to the literary direction realism. One of the favorite genres of Saltykov-Shchedrin was story, and the writer has created amazing works in which there is magic. But these are really unique stories: in them the author denounces the true nature of the landlords of his time, mocks their ineptitude, and reveals the essence of such a social phenomenon as bribery. Therefore, "Tales for children of a fair age" are considered realistic. If, before Saltykov-Shchedrin, writers turned to fairy tales in order to escape reality into fantasy world, then this grandiose satirist shows the world around him without embellishment. This gloomy reality is smoothed out only by the fabulous style of writing.

Composition the work "The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals" is very similar to the composition of most folk tales. It consists of three elements: fabulous beginning "We lived and were", foreshadowing the development fantastic events; climax, that is, the meeting of the generals with the peasant; denouement, "happy" the end, in which the generals receive a large sum of money, and the peasant - a glass of vodka and a nickel of silver. The author, ironically, notes the injustice of life: the power that does not strike a finger is bathed in gold, while the common people who do all the work are left with nothing.

In a fairy tale, one can conditionally distinguish two storylines: before the appearance of the man and after. In the first line, Saltykov-Shchedrin reveals images of generals. We see that the characters are similar, but the author still endowed each of them with a special character: if the first general is simply stupid and lazy, then the second is also rude. This fact indicates the author's intention: to portray the generals as typical people, having power, but not faceless creatures.

In the second storyline, the central place is occupied by the image of a peasant, as well as the relationship between him and the generals. The writer contrasts the efforts of the peasants with the laziness and helplessness of people who are higher in rank than him.

After analyzing the main storylines of the fairy tale, it can be argued that in "The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals" two opposite social strata are shown: the people and the authorities. In the relationship between these two camps lies the main problem works.

The second camp is represented by two generals who have served all their lives "in some sort of registry", "understood nothing" and they couldn't do anything. Saltykov-Shchedrin from the first lines of the work begins to ridicule the representatives of the authorities with their exorbitant pride and, at the same time, their extreme unsuitability. An image is created of exclusively negative characters, selfish and lazy. The author specifically does not endow them with names in order to show the typicality of such intellectuals.

In the first camp, the author places only one hero: a nameless peasant who silently obeys all the orders of the generals. The writer endows him with fabulous abilities: either he makes a snare from his own hair, or he bakes provisions on a fire made from two pieces of wood. Saltykov-Shchedrin emphasizes that no matter how the generals scolded him, the peasant never said a word across. The author sadly draws a literary the image of a hardworking people who is accustomed to unquestioningly obey powerful persons.

Why did Saltykov-Shchedrin choose fairy tale genre, although he puts in the work such difficult topics like social inequality, abuse of power, life injustice? Thus, the writer circumvented the strict laws of censorship. If Saltykov-Shchedrin had tried to publish his thoughts as part of a journalistic article, he would have been immediately sent into re-exile. Thus, writing fairy tales, under which a terrifying reality is hidden, helped him allegorically express his attitude to the most important problems of that time, made him an innovator in the field of Russian realistic prose.

"The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals" is satirical tale in which rise critical issues that have not lost their relevance in our time.

• "The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals", summary

A method is a way, a way to achieve a goal. Classification of teaching methods: 1) Methods for organizing and implementing educational cognitive activity. 2) Methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity. 3) Methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity.

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Teaching methods are ways joint activities

Educator and students aimed at achieving

They have educational purposes. (A.V. Khutorskoy).

A method is a way, a way to achieve a goal. The success of everything depends on the choice of methods used. educational process. This caused special attention to teaching methods.

The method is part of the type of activity of the student or teacher, the unit of the action. The choice of teaching methods is determined by: the semantic goals of education, the characteristics of the training course, the purpose of a particular lesson, the capabilities of students, the availability of time and means of training, the preferences of the teacher and the features of the didactic system used by him.

An integral part of the method is the reception. Separate techniques may be included in different methods (for example, the method of formulating a question to find out the reasons - in the methods of research, explanation, reflection, etc.).

The role and place of methods in teaching is determined by their types and functions. Therefore, the key didactic problem is the classification of teaching methods. However, there is no single classification of teaching methods. But consideration different approaches to dividing them into groups allows you to systematize the methods as a didactic toolkit.

Historically, the first methods of teaching are the methods of the teacher (story, explanation), the methods of the student (exercises, independent work) and methods of their joint work (conversation).

Classification of teaching methods

With a holistic approach, it is necessary to distinguish 3 large groups of teaching methods:

1. Methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities

2. Methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity

3. Methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities

Methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities.

Verbal methods, visual and practical methods (the aspect of transmission and perception of educational information);

Inductive and deductive methods (logical aspect);

Reproductive and problem-search methods (aspect of thinking);

Methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher (aspect of learning management).

Methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity,based on the presence of two large groups motives can be divided into methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning and methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning:

Methods for stimulating and motivating interest in learning;

Methods of stimulation and motivation of duty and responsibility in teaching

Methods of control and self-controlin the learning process can be divided into their constituent subgroups, based on the main sources, receiving feedback during educational process- oral, written, laboratory and practical:

Methods of oral control and self-control;

Methods of written control and self-control;

Methods laboratory and practical control and self-control.

AND I. Lerner and M.N. Skatkindeveloped teaching methods based on the nature of the educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering the material being studied. From this point of view, they distinguished the following methods:

a) explanatory-illustrative, or informational-receptive (reception - perception): story, lecture, explanation, work with a textbook, demonstration of paintings, films and filmstrips, etc.;

b) reproductive: reproduction of actions for the application of knowledge in practice, activities according to the algorithm, programming;

c) problematic presentation of the studied material;

d) partial search, or heuristic method;

e) a research method, when students are given a cognitive task that they solve on their own, choosing the necessary methods for this and using the help of a teacher.

Yu.K. Babanskiy All the variety of teaching methods was divided into three main groups:

a) methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities;

b) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity;

c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity.

From a didactic point of view, the classification by M.A. Danilov and B.P. Esipov.They proceeded from the fact that if teaching methods act as ways of organizing an ordered learning activities students to achieve didactic goals and solve cognitive problems, then, therefore, they can be divided into the following groups:

A) methods of acquiring new knowledge,

b) methods of forming skills and abilities for applying knowledge in practice,

C) methods for testing and evaluating knowledge, skills and abilities.

This classification is in good agreement with the main objectives of education and helps to better understand their functional purpose.

If some clarifications are made to this classification, thenall the variety of teaching methods can be divided into five following groups:

a) methods oral presentation knowledge by the teacher and the activation of the cognitive activity of students: a story, an explanation, a school lecture, a conversation;

b) the method of illustration and demonstration in the oral presentation of the studied material:

c) methods of consolidating the studied material: conversation, work with a textbook:

d) methods of independent work of students to comprehend and assimilate new material: work with a textbook, laboratory works;

e) methods of educational work on the application of knowledge in practice and the development of skills and abilities: exercises, laboratory exercises;

Teaching methods (A.V. Khutorskoy. Workshop on didactics and methods)

Classical domestic methods Innovative teaching methods

Methods of author's schools
- M.V. Lomonosov's learning system - Programmed learning - Shatalov's technique
- free school L.N. Tolstoy - Developing education - Method of "immersion"
- Didactics of P.F. Kapterev - Problem-based learning - School of free development
- The training system of S.T. Shatsky - Heuristic learning-Russian school
- A.S. Makarenko's education system - Nature-friendly education - School of Dialogue of Cultures
- Methodology of A.G. Rivin - Student-centered learning - Methodological College

Productive Learning - School of Self-Determination

Foreign methods
- Socratic system
- New school S. Frenet
- M. Montessori system
- Waldorf School
- School tomorrow(D. Howard)
- Dalton Plan and other learning systems

“Problem-based learning forms a harmoniously developed creative personality able to think logically, find solutions in various problem situations, able to systematize and accumulate knowledge, capable of high introspection, self-development and self-correction. M.I. Makhmutov

The methodology of problem-based learning is based on theoretical principlesAmerican philosopher, psychologist and educator J. Dewey; he founded a private school, the basis of education of which was play and labor activity.

The method of problem-based learning refers to technologies that determine the strategy and style of learning.

T.A. Ilyina

Problem-Based Learning Methodology

A.V. Brushlinsky (1983) identifies two types problem situations:

Primary - occurs when the student, bumping into

contradiction, is not yet aware of it, although he experiences bewilderment at the same time,

amazement, cognitive discomfort.

Secondary problem - problem understood and clearly articulated.

A problem situation is a special kind of mental interaction between a subject and an object; characterized by such mental state arising from the subject (student) when performing

them a task that requires finding (discovering or assimilating) new knowledge or methods of action previously unknown to the subject. A.M. Matyushkin

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Introduction

School education has great prerogative in human development, which should provide adequate knowledge and appropriate education in the process of becoming a student's personality as a full-fledged social member of society, since this age period determines a great potential prospect for the child's versatile development.

Relevance. Today the main goal of the secondary secondary school- contribute to the mental, moral, emotional and physical development individuals using various teaching methods for this.

The teaching method is a very complex and ambiguous concept. Until now, scientists dealing with this problem have not come to common understanding and interpretation of the essence of this pedagogical category. And it's not that insufficient attention has been paid to this problem. The problem lies in the versatility of this concept. Translated from Greek, methodos means "the path of research, theory", otherwise - a way to achieve a goal or solve a specific problem. I. F. Kharlamov understands teaching methods as "methods of the teacher's teaching work and the organization of educational and cognitive activity of students in solving various didactic tasks aimed at mastering the material being studied." N. V. Savin believes that "teaching methods are ways of joint activity of a teacher and students aimed at solving learning problems."

Modern achievements computer technology convincingly prove to us that teaching methods can also be understood as "a way of organizing the cognitive activity of students" (T. A. Ilyina) without the participation of a teacher at all. Thus, at the present stage of development of pedagogy, the following definition seems to be the most appropriate: teaching methods are ways of organizing a student's educational and cognitive activity with predetermined tasks, levels of cognitive activity, learning activities and expected results to achieve didactic goals. (8, 129)

In primitive society and in ancient times, teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. Observation and repetition of the actions of adults turned out to be dominant in the process of transferring experience. As the actions mastered by a person become more complex and the volume of accumulated knowledge expands, simple imitation could no longer provide a sufficient level and quality of assimilation by the child of the necessary cultural experience. Therefore, a person was simply forced to switch to verbal teaching methods. This was a kind of turning point in the history of education; now it has become possible to transfer a large amount of knowledge for a short time. It was the responsibility of the student to carefully memorize the information transmitted to him. In the era of the great geographical discoveries and scientific inventions volume cultural heritage humanity has grown so much that dogmatic methods could hardly cope with the task. Society needed people who not only memorized patterns, but also could apply them. Consequently, methods of visual learning have reached the maximum development, helping to apply the acquired knowledge in practice. Departure towards humanitarian principles and ideals leads to the disappearance of authoritarian methods of teaching, and they are replaced by methods of increasing the motivation of students. Now it was not the rods that should have encouraged the child to learn, but the interest in learning and results. Further search led to the widespread use of the so-called problem-based teaching methods based on independent movement student to knowledge. The development humanities, primarily psychology, led society to the understanding that the child needs not only education, but also the development of his inner abilities and personality, in a word, self-actualization. This served as the basis for the development and wide application of developmental teaching methods. Thus, three conclusions can be drawn from the evolution of teaching methods:

1. No single method can provide the required results in full.

2. Follows from the previous one; good results can only be achieved by using a variety of methods.

3. The greatest effect can be achieved using not multidirectional, but complementary methods that make up the system.

The purpose of the work is to explore teaching methods in modern school.

In accordance with the goal, the following tasks were formulated:

Consider the theoretical foundations of teaching methods;

To study the characteristic features of some teaching methods in a modern school.

Describe the means of teaching in the educational process.

Chapter 1. Theoretical Foundations of Teaching Methods

1.1 The concept of the teaching method

The teaching method is one of the main components of the learning process. If you do not apply various methods, then it will not be possible to realize the goals and objectives of training. That is why researchers pay so much attention to clarifying both their essence and functions.

In our time, the development of the creative abilities of the child, his cognitive needs and features of the worldview must be given great attention. A.V. wrote about the importance of teaching methods. Lunacharsky: “It depends on the method of teaching whether it will arouse boredom in the child, whether teaching will slide over the surface of the child’s brain, leaving almost no trace on it, or, on the contrary, this teaching will be perceived joyfully, as part of a child’s game, as part of child's life, will merge with the child's psyche, become his flesh and blood. It depends on the method of teaching whether the class will look at the classes as hard labor and oppose them with their childish liveliness in the form of pranks and tricks, or whether this class will be soldered by the unity of interesting work and imbued with noble friendship for its leader. Imperceptibly, the methods of teaching pass into the methods of education. One and the other are intimately connected. And education, even more than teaching, should be based on knowledge of the psychology of the child, on the living assimilation of the latest methods. (17, 126)

Teaching methods are a complex phenomenon. What they will be depends on the goals and objectives of training. Methods are determined, first of all, by the effectiveness of teaching and learning methods.

In general, a method is a method, or a system of techniques, with the help of which one or another goal is achieved when a certain operation is performed. So, when determining the essence of the method, two characteristic features of it can be identified. Firstly, here we should talk about the sign of the purposefulness of the action, and secondly, about the sign of its regulation. These are the so-called standard characteristics of the method in general. But there are also specific ones that are related only to the teaching method. These primarily include:

- some forms of movement of cognitive activity;

- any means of exchanging information between teachers and students;

- stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity of students;

- control over the learning process;

- management of cognitive activity of students;

- disclosure of the content of knowledge in an educational institution.

Moreover, the success of the implementation of the method in practice and the degree of its effectiveness directly depend on the efforts of not only the teacher, but also the student himself.

Based on the presence of numerous features, several definitions can be given to the concept of a teaching method. According to one point of view, the teaching method is a way of organizing and managing educational and cognitive activities. If we approach the definition from the point of view of logic, then the teaching method can be called a logical method that helps to master certain skills, knowledge and abilities. But each of these definitions characterizes only one side of the teaching method. The concept was most fully defined at a scientific and practical conference in 1978. According to it, teaching methods are called "ordered methods of interconnected activities of a teacher and students aimed at achieving the goals of education, upbringing and development of schoolchildren."

A logical approach to the definition of the teaching method was proposed back in the pre-revolutionary years. Later, this approach was defended by ML. Danilov. He was firmly convinced that the method of teaching is "the logical method used by the teacher, through which students consciously acquire knowledge and master skills and abilities." However, many researchers do not agree with this point of view, rightly arguing that the mental processes in children of different ages. That is why, in order to successfully achieve learning outcomes, it is so important to influence the development mental activity. (19, 115)

Within the framework of this issue, the point of view of E.I. Petrovsky, who approached the definition of the content and essence of teaching methods from a general philosophical point of view. He proposed to distinguish between two categories in teaching methods - form and content. Proceeding from this, the researcher presented the teaching method as “a form of learning content corresponding to the nearest didactic purpose, which at the moment of teaching the teacher puts in front of himself and the students.

There are other concepts of learning content. According to one of them, teaching methods are considered "as ways of organizing the cognitive activity of students, ensuring the mastery of knowledge, methods of cognition and practical activities." For special and humanitarian sciences, teaching methods will be different. So, for example, in biology there must be experiments, research and observation. When teaching history, an indispensable condition should be working with reference books, newspapers, magazines, drawing up diagrams, i.e. big research activities aimed at studying historical monuments. It is impossible to study history without this component. When studying literature, it is impossible to do without a deep analysis of the text, the study of the biography of the writer himself, the historical era in which he lived.

It is customary to distinguish between methods of learning and teaching. Teaching methods contain not only methods, but also a description of how to organize learning activities. Moreover, any method can be chosen for training, it all depends on what goals he wants to achieve. Although sometimes one needs to be successful in teaching activities. certain method while others are ineffective.

The teaching method depends on:

1) on the purpose of the lesson. For example, students in grade 5 need to learn the conjugation of verbs. In this case, neither conversation nor coherent repetition will help the students to consolidate them. In this case, the most effective method will be the independent work of students, for example, doing exercises;

2) from the stage of the lesson. So, at the initial stage - during the period of explaining new material - the method of conversation or information given in new topic are offered for home fixing. Therefore, in the lesson, students will already understand what is being said. To consolidate the material, it is proposed to perform a series of exercises at home, to recall what has been done earlier. The conversation of the teacher with the students also helps;

3) on the content of training. Each subject has its own specific features, respectively, for its development requires a certain method. For example, when studying physics and chemistry, students are encouraged to do a series of laboratory work. Thanks to this, they can consolidate and apply the acquired theoretical knowledge; 4) on the mental characteristics and capabilities of students. For senior students and younger age they will be different. Young children get tired of doing the same thing for a long time very quickly, so it is not advisable to use one method in working with them. In this case, it is better to alternate methods of exposure. You can use the game method, since younger students have a high need for motor activity. But here the teacher should constantly ensure that the methods used correspond to the goals of teaching; 5) on local conditions. Both the contingent of children and local conditions play a role here. For example, in the lessons of botany, it is necessary to visually show several types of plants. It will not be difficult for a rural teacher to do this, but for a city teacher it may cause some difficulties. If it is not possible to show the material being explained on a living example, you should use other means, for example, make diagrams or drawings and show them on the board;

6) availability teaching aids. A visual aid plays a huge role in choosing a teaching method. It happens that without it new material it is simply impossible to explain. So, for example, by studying geometric shapes, you can make flat and three-dimensional models, include watching a movie or photographs in a lesson;

7) on the personality of the teacher. For example, some teachers can explain a topic for a very long and interesting time, keeping the class's attention until the end of the lesson. Others, on the contrary, live, long communication is difficult. Therefore, it is quite natural that they will use a different method, more acceptable to them. But this does not mean at all that the teacher should use the same methods that he likes. It is necessary to apply the best, as a result of which the effectiveness of training will increase. The choice of method is individual for each teacher and for each case.

It should be noted that the teacher must constantly improve his professional skills, expand the range of methods used and apply them in practice. Otherwise, if the teaching methods are used incorrectly, there may be negative results. It is very important to remember that the methods must be used in combination, because a single method will not make it possible to fulfill the tasks and learning objectives. As proof, one can cite the words of Yu.K. Babansky. Reflecting on the problem of teaching methods in his book Choice of Teaching Methods in Secondary School, he said: more aspects, the teacher justified the choice of a system of teaching methods (in perceptual, epistemological, logical, motivational, control and regulation, etc.), the higher and more durable educational results he achieves in the learning process for the same time allotted for study relevant topic." (3, 125)

1.2 Classifications of teaching methods

There is no consensus in didactics on this issue. Therefore, there are several types of classification of teaching methods. For example, at first they tried to classify methods in terms of learning activities. According to her, they are divided into two groups.

1. Method of ready knowledge. In this case, students perceive, memorize and comprehend the information transmitted by the teacher.

2. Research method. It is aimed at independent study of the material and the acquisition of knowledge.

At that time, much attention was paid to the research method. It was considered universal and opposed to all other teaching methods. Ultimately, this classification was abandoned. An attempt to classify the methods was also made by the Georgian researcher D.O. Lorkipanidze. In his opinion, the methods can be divided into verbal, verbal, work with a book, writing and educational and practical classes. They corresponded to such sources as books, textbooks, teacher's words, Practical activities students, observation, research. (19, 135)

Some scientists, according to the sources of knowledge, divide the methods into three categories:

1) verbal;

2) visual;

3) practical,

The developers of this classification were E.I. Golant, S.G. Shapovalenko, N.M. Verzilin. Due to the fact that the classification was simple and accessible, it received quite wide use. However, it has not received general recognition. One of those who did not agree with this classification was R. G. Lemberg. He motivated his disagreement by the fact that the word and speech are not a source of knowledge. In his opinion, the primary component in cognitive activity is the image. In turn, practice is not only a source of knowledge, but also a criterion of truth. Lemberg's remarks are justified on the issue that in the proposed classification of a group of researchers (Golant, Shapovalenko, Verzilin) ​​there are no clear boundaries for classifying methods as belonging to another group. (8, 136)

There is also a classification of teaching methods according to didactic tasks. The result is the following.

1, Learning task -- the acquisition of knowledge by students;

a) preparing students to listen to the teacher's explanation. Methods: preliminary observations, preliminary reading of the material;

b) presentation of knowledge by the teacher. Methods: explanation, story, conversation, lecture, demonstration of teaching aids, visual objects, experiments;

c) thinking about the topic presented by the teacher and putting it into practice. Method: study of book and educational material",

d) acquisition of knowledge by students without prior explanation by the teacher. Methods: work with books, textbooks, practical experiments.

2. The educational task is the formation of students' skills and abilities. Method: doing exercises.

3. The learning task is the application of knowledge by students in practice. Method: drawing up and solving problems, conducting laboratory and creative work.

4. The educational task is to consolidate the acquired knowledge and skills in practice. Methods: reading the educational material, repeating some practical work and doing exercises, conducting conversations. Concluding conversations on previously studied material.

5. Learning task - testing knowledge and skills in practice. Methods: oral questioning of the studied material, current testing of knowledge through observation. Performing written and practical tests,

Despite its detail, this classification is also not ideal. The fact is that it cannot be clearly systematized, since some methods are used to solve different problems.

There is another type of classification, according to which teaching methods are divided according to the degree of independence of students. Despite the fact that there is a grain of meaning in such a division, the methods are considered here in accordance with the sources of knowledge gained, for example, when working with a book, textbook, experiments, observations.

There is another classification proposed by researchers I.Ya. Lerner and L. Ya. Skatkin. In their opinion, teaching methods are ways of organizing the cognitive activity of students, with the help of which, in the learning process, knowledge, skills and abilities are mastered. So, they classify all methods into four categories. (8,137)

1. Explanatory-illustrative, or reproductive, method. This method is associated, first of all, with the assimilation of ready-made knowledge by students. This knowledge is communicated to them by the teacher in various forms, and they, accordingly, reproduce this knowledge.

2. Problem method. In this case, students actively participate in the discussion and solution of various kinds of educational problems. These problems are put forward by the teacher himself for cognitive purposes.

3. Research method. Here the problem is solved by the students themselves. The teacher also plays the role of the organizer of independent search activities of students.

4. Partial search method. This is a more accessible and simple method compared to the research one. With its help, students acquire knowledge, skills and abilities at separate stages, called elements of the process of scientific knowledge. This is achieved by creating hypotheses, through observation or solving logical problems.

According to the authors of this classification, teaching methods in their traditional sense are an external manifestation of the methods they named. In other words, the explanatory-illustrative method is similar to a demonstration, lecture, story, conversation, written exercises, work with textbooks, etc. As for the problematic method, it corresponds to the evidence-based presentation of the teacher, information learned from a textbook or popular science book, excursions and demonstrations. The research method is adequate to observations, experiments, drawing up plans, solving cognitive problems, designing, etc.

However, this classification has also been criticized. Some researchers felt that it does not solve didactic problem classification of teaching methods. B.P. Esipov, the author of the textbook "Fundamentals of Didactics", states the following about this: "The problem of teaching methods is replaced by the problem of the essence of the process cognitive work students while learning. (8,139)

In this regard, some didactics suggest using the following division of teaching methods: verbal, visual, practical. But it should be noted that all these methods are used in combination or in various combinations. But in any case, practical methods are a necessary addition, since the connection between theory and practice should not be broken. After all, everyone knows that theory without practice means little.

There is another classification of teaching methods proposed by M.I. Pakhmutov. It is a kind of classification developed by I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin. Its author identifies four teaching methods, which he calls as follows: (8,139)

- information and executive;

- explanatory-reproductive;

- information retrieval;

- inciting-exploratory.

Another classification is also known, according to which teaching methods are divided into three large groups:

1) methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities. They contribute to the process of mediation by the personality of educational information;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity. They provide essential functions adjustment of the educational process, as well as its cognitive, volitional and emotional activation;

3) methods of control and self-control of the effectiveness of the educational and cognitive process. They help the teacher to control academic work students, as well as exercise self-control of students. In each of these groups, close interaction between students and teacher is taken into account. It turns out that the organizational skills of the teacher play the same role. important role as well as the self-organization of the students themselves. The teacher must constantly stimulate the students, thanks to which their internal stimulation also occurs. The control of the teacher and the self-control of the students are just as closely combined, in other words, they mutually determine each other.

Such a peculiar approach to teaching methods, according to some researchers, is associated with their diversity and with the possible replenishment of new ways of learning. In this regard, not individual methods are classified, but their groups. In addition, the number, like methods, is not constant, it can vary if a more detailed division is carried out within groups. Moreover, it should be noted that each of these methods performs several functions at once: educational, upbringing and developing. In addition, each method has its own dominant function, according to which it can be attributed to a particular group.

Within each group of methods, subgroups can be distinguished. In the first group (methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activity), perceptual methods, or methods of organizing and implementing the sensory perception of educational information, are considered. The second subgroup includes boolean methods, or, as they are also called, methods of organizing and implementing mental activity inductive, deductive, etc. The third subgroup is made up of gnostic methods, or methods of a reproductive and exploratory nature. The last in this group are methods of management in training or, in other words, methods of controlled and self-managed educational and practical activities.

Let's consider each subgroup in more detail. Perceptual methods include the following types;

1) verbal methods, which include conversation, story, lecture, etc.;

2) visual methods, including demonstrations, illustrations, etc.;

3) practical methods, which consist of exercises, laboratory experiments, labor actions, etc.

The system of perceptual methods includes not only sources of information, but also the nature of sensory perception, which includes visual, auditory and proprioceptive-tactile. As for classification from the point of view of logic, here it is usually customary to single out inductive and deductive, analytical and synthetic methods learning. At inductive method the process of cognition proceeds from the particular to the general, and in deductive, on the contrary, from the general to the particular.

Speaking about the methods of stimulation and motivation, several subgroups should be distinguished. The main types of students' motives are, firstly, the motives of cognitive interest, and secondly, the motives of duty in learning. Thus, the following two subgroups are distinguished:

- methods of forming interest in learning;

- methods of developing duty and responsibility in teaching.

In addition to all the above teaching methods that stimulate the work of students, there are specific ones aimed at mastering knowledge and skills and performing the function of developing cognitive interest. Such methods include the following methods:

- educational games;

- educational discussions;

- creating situations of emotional and moral experiences, as well as entertaining, relying on previously gained life experience, cognitive novelty.

With regard to the development of motives of duty and responsibility, the following methods can be attributed here:

- students' convictions about the social and personal significance of teaching;

- making demands. The success of the exercise depends on their observance;

- exercises and accustoming to the fulfillment of requirements;

- positive example;

- creating favorable communication;

- encouragement or censure, etc.

Methods of control and self-control include:

- oral control;

- written control;

- laboratory and practical control;

- programmed and non-programmed control;

training school developing traditional computer

Chapter 2. Characteristics of teaching methods

2.1 Traditional school methods

Verbal methods in teaching

It is customary to refer to the verbal methods of presentation a story, a conversation, an explanation and a school lecture. At first, they were treated very distrustfully, considering them a relic of the past. But since the 1930s the situation began to change radically. At the present stage of the development of didactics, verbal methods are given a significant place. But other methods are also used.

Using verbal methods the pace and tone of the presentation should be taken into account. The pace should not be too fast, as this makes it difficult to perceive and understand what is heard. If the pace of speech is too slow, students gradually lose interest in the material being presented. Negatively affect the assimilation of the material too loud or quiet, as well as monotonous presentation. Sometimes a joke or an apt comparison is appropriate to defuse the situation. The further assimilation of the subject depends on how interesting the educational material is presented. If the teacher's speeches are boring, students may hate the subject he teaches. Now let's take a closer look at each separate form oral presentation of knowledge.

A presentation is a coherent communication of the material by the teacher when he reports on those facts about which the students still do not know anything. In this regard, the method is used when the student does not yet have any knowledge about the topic being studied. The second case when this method is used is the repetition of already learned material. Thus, the teacher sums up or helps to consolidate the material already studied.

Statement educational material may be in the form of an explanation or description. This is the so-called strict scientific-objective message. It is used in the case when the material communicated to the students is unfamiliar to them, and the facts cannot be directly observed when studying this material. For example, this concerns the explanation of a topic related to the study of the economy or the way of life of other countries, or, for example, when studying patterns in chemistry and biology. Very often, explanation can be combined with observations, questions from students, and questions from the teacher to students. You can check how correctly and accurately the knowledge was learned using this method with the help of exercises and practical work.

The presentation of the material can be in the form of a story, or artistic description. This is done using means of expression. A story is a figurative, emotional and lively presentation of the material, which is carried out in a narrative or descriptive form. It is used mainly in the presentation of humanitarian subjects or biographical material, when characterizing images, phenomena public life, as well as natural phenomena. The story has its benefits. If it is lively and exciting, it can greatly affect the imagination and feelings of the students. In this case, students are able to experience the same feelings as the teacher in order to understand the content of the story together. Moreover, such descriptions have an impact on the aesthetic and moral feelings of students.

The duration of the story should be no more than 10-15 minutes for elementary grades and 30-40 for seniors. A special role here is played by visual aids, the introduction of elements of the conversation, as well as summing up and conclusions to what has been said.

The educational lecture is usually used in the upper grades. It is distinguished by efficiency in time, great scientific rigor in the presentation of educational material and great educational value for students. As a rule, the topics for lectures are the fundamental sections of the training course. The lecture allows the use of films, demonstration of visual aids and experiments. Very often, during lectures, the teacher can address the class with questions that arouse the interest of the children. This creates any problem situations, then the teacher invites the class to resolve them. (27, 15)

The lecture begins with the fact that the teacher announces her topic and highlights those issues that will be considered. AT individual cases he may suggest that the class itself draw up a lesson plan in the process of listening to the lecture material. At the next stages, it is necessary to teach students to do after the lecturer short notes main theses and concepts. You can use various tables, diagrams and drawings. At first, the teacher himself must tell the students what needs to be recorded on paper, but in the future they need to learn how to capture such moments, focusing on the pace and intonation of the teacher's presentation of the material.

To speed up the process of writing down the material, the teacher should inform the students about the possibility of using generally accepted abbreviations and notation. At the end of the lecture, students can ask questions. And the answers are proposed to be given either to other students, or they are given by the teacher himself.

When presenting the material, the teacher must remember some rules. Firstly, speech should be intelligible, concise and understandable. Secondly, cumbersome sentences should be avoided, and the terms that arise in the course of presentation should be immediately explained. You can write them on the board. This also includes difficult-to-pronounce names and historical dates.

It is very important that the students see their teacher during the presentation of the material. Therefore, it is better if he stands in one place, and not walk around the class. In addition, in order to establish the necessary contact with the class, the teacher himself must see all the students. This will make it easier for him to keep their attention. At the same time, he will be able to see if they have time to assimilate the material presented or if something is not clear to them.

Equally important are the facial expressions and gestures of the teacher. For better assimilation of the topic, it is necessary to divide it into semantic parts and after each draw generalizing conclusions and sum up. It is very useful for mastering the material to repeat what the teacher said, but in your own words. If the attention of the class is distracted by something, it does not hurt to pause. To maintain attention, a great way is to raise and lower your voice. During the presentation of the material, the teacher can ask rhetorical questions to which students would like to respond. If this is a junior class, then the entries should be made under the clear supervision of the teacher.

The preparation of the material plays an important role. But this does not mean at all that the teacher should read his notes in class. You can look into the record so as not to lose your train of thought and clarify the next stage of the presentation. And yet, it is necessary to strive to freely tell the educational material.

However, presentation as a teaching method has both advantages and disadvantages. As for the advantages, in the shortest possible time allotted for explaining the material, the teacher can convey to the students all the necessary information. In addition, it also has educational purposes.

But there are also disadvantages. Firstly, when the teacher presents the material, the students cannot be active enough. The most they can do is listen carefully to his speech and ask questions. But in this case, the teacher cannot sufficiently check how much the students have mastered the knowledge. Therefore, in the first years of education (up to grade 3), this method should be avoided or used as little as possible by the teacher. Moreover, if the presentation does apply, then it should not take more than 5 or 10 minutes.

You can increase the effectiveness of the perception of the material presented by the teacher, if you simultaneously refer to manuals. Students will be able not only to listen to the teacher, but also to look at the manual from time to time if something becomes incomprehensible. This is especially important if it is necessary to visually show the material (for example, a description of the appearance of animals or a story about how the most ancient tools looked like). For better assimilation of the material presented, you can use visual aids (paintings, photographs, kerosene lamps, clocks, etc.). Well, to make the speech more vivid and visual, you can draw diagrams and tables on the board.

Another verbal method is conversation. characteristic feature conversations - the participation in it of both the teacher and the student. The teacher can ask questions and the students answer them. In the process of learning through this method, students learn the material and gain new knowledge using their logical thinking. This method is an excellent tool for consolidating and checking the studied material, as well as for repeating it.

The teacher uses the method of conversation in the case when students already know something about a particular topic. Questions to which students already know the answers are interspersed with questions they do not know. During the conversation, students connect them together and thus acquire new knowledge, expanding and deepening what they already know. There are several types of conversation: catechetical, heuristic, verification, hermenic.

catechetical conversation

Translated from the Greek language katecheo, or "catechetical", means "I teach, I instruct." For the first time this method appeared in the medieval period, and even then it began to be widely used in practice, imparting new knowledge to students. In church literature there is a textbook called "Catechism", which is built on the same principle. All religious dogmas in this textbook are divided into questions and answers. However, the modern method of catechetical conversation has one significant difference from the similar medieval method: if in the Middle Ages they memorized material without understanding, then in the modern world, students are required to be independent in mental work.

This method is necessary first of all in order to control the learning process and find out how well the material learned has been mastered. In addition, this method is widely used to consolidate what has already been learned. With the help of catechetical conversation, thinking is perfectly developed and memory is trained. It was found that with a certain formulation of questions, students perfectly remember and consolidate their knowledge. Moreover, they are able not only to recall the material already studied, but also to correctly present it. At the same time, knowledge is perfectly systematized and stacked “on the shelves”. In addition, the teacher has a great opportunity to see how well the material is understood.

Heuristic conversation

Heurisko means "I find" in Greek. One of the generally accepted masters of such a conversation was Socrates. Here is what they say about him in this regard: “Socrates never gave ready-made answers. With his questions and objections, he tried to lead the interlocutor himself to right decisions... The goal of Socrates was not knowledge itself, but the awakening of people's love for knowledge.

In this regard, the method received another version of the name - Socratic.

This method also has its own distinctive features. New knowledge when using it is acquired through the efforts, primarily of students. They receive them in the process of independent thinking. Students acquire further knowledge and discoveries using previously studied topics through independent “discovery” of laws and rules. Then they summarize and draw conclusions.

Speaking about the advantages of this method, Diesterweg wrote, “that it is much more important for students to learn the paths to the proof than the proof itself. By and large, it is more educational to know the ways in which thinkers arrived at their conclusions than to know those conclusions alone. (3.79)

However, heuristic conversation can be applied not by every teacher, but only by those who are well prepared didactically. In a word, he must be an experienced person who knows his business. And students should be able to think independently. However, this method will be effective only if the teacher can interest students and involve them in active work in the classroom.

This method cannot always be implemented in practice to a sufficient extent, since very often children with different mental abilities are gathered in the same class, so someone participates in a heuristic conversation, and someone does not. So this method should be used when the mental abilities of each child are clarified. Only if the students meet the requirements can this teaching method be used.

Let's compare the two types of conversations and see what are their similarities and differences. Thus, catechetical conversation contributes to the development of memory and thinking of students. At the moment when the students answer the questions of the teacher, they rely on the knowledge they have already acquired. Thus, they are processed and systematized. This method is used to test students' knowledge.

As for the heuristic conversation, it is aimed at obtaining new knowledge by students. During such a conversation, the logical abilities of independent thinking also develop. Through mental efforts, students discover new knowledge for themselves. And if in a catechetical conversation, when a teacher asks a question, only one student answers it, then in a heuristic conversation there are many students.

The basis for the use of these methods is already obtained earlier knowledge and experience. The successful use of these methods requires active collaborative work under the strict guidance of the teacher, as well as careful preparation of the teacher himself. As a rule, in the lower grades, the conversation should last no more than 10-15 minutes. As for the senior classes, here her time can be increased.

Test conversation

This form is considered special. Despite the fact that the form of its conduct coincides with the forms of the previous types of conversations, there are some differences. First of all, they are connected with the fact that its individual parts are very important. So, during this conversation, several students answer questions, and the material already studied earlier is considered. Test conversation serves to control the level of knowledge of the student.

As a rule, the teacher himself asks the question and decides which of the students will answer it. The student's knowledge must be expressed not only in his own manner, but also with his own examples. And the teacher can make sure that the student thinks for himself and understands what he is talking about, and not just memorizing topics. To do this, the teacher sometimes formulates his question in a different way, not as stated in the textbook, in connection with which the poorly learned material makes itself felt. Such a student will not be able to answer it, because he taught the lessons in bad faith. Sometimes the teacher selects the student before asking the question. In such a conversation, after each student's answer, he must not only give him an assessment, but also logically substantiate it.

Sometimes a survey on a studied topic by a verification method is carried out in order to find out how the theoretical material is learned. Sometimes testing conversations are held when it is necessary to find out how well students have mastered certain skills. Sometimes a test conversation is structured in such a way that the student needs to apply all his knowledge and skills in practice, and the teacher already evaluates them in terms of assimilation and correctness. However, one of the disadvantages of this method is that the teacher will be able to reveal knowledge and skills only in an elective order, without covering the entire class. But through periodic questioning, the full picture of the class's diligence still emerges. Usually a test conversation with one student lasts no more than 5 or 10 minutes.

Hermenic conversation

Translated from Greek, "hermenic" means "to interpret, explain."

There is a science called "hermeneutics", the purpose of which is the interpretation and explanation of texts, paintings and musical plays. Hermenic conversation can also be conducted when the students have texts at hand. The main goal of this method is to teach the child to use books, models, paintings independently. In addition, with the help of such a conversation, the teacher teaches and guides his wards to the correct understanding and interpretation of texts. As with other types, the question-answer form is used in the hermenic conversation.

Explanatory reading also belongs to this type of conversation. Very often this method is used in the study of foreign languages ​​and in the presentation of well-known concepts, such as information on geography, history and natural science. This method is used along with others. It is very important for teaching in elementary grades.

In order to use the method of conversation correctly, it is necessary to adhere to certain rules. First, ask a question or raise a problem in a way that will interest the student. They should be based on personal experience and prior knowledge. None of the questions asked by the teacher should be too easy, it is important that the student can still think about it.

Questions should be asked to the whole class. It is very important at the same time to keep the attention of those guys who are not involved in the conversation. It is also necessary to take into account the desire of the student to answer questions. It must be remembered that they are not equally easy or difficult: both must be present, so that both weak students and strong ones can take an equal part in the conversation. We should not forget about those who are closed and quiet. After all, the fact that they do not raise their hands and do not answer in chorus, together with everyone, does not mean at all that they do not know anything. Moreover, care should be taken to ensure that the same students do not answer in the lessons.

It is equally important for a successful conversation to master the methodology of posing a question. Questions should be simple and specific. Moreover, their task is to awaken the thought of students.

The conversation method has a number of both advantages and disadvantages. First, if the teacher is sufficiently qualified, then the conversation will enliven the learning process; there is also an opportunity to control the level of knowledge. This method contributes to the development of the correct, competent speech at the students. Moreover, they have the opportunity to think independently and acquire new knowledge.

Sometimes conversation can have a negative impact on learning. This happens if the teacher, listening to the answers of the students, is distracted from the purpose of the lesson and begins to talk about completely different topics. Not only will he lose a lot of time that he could spend on studying or consolidating the material, he will not be able to interview the whole class.

Visual teaching methods

Visual teaching methods contribute to the assimilation of educational material. As a rule, visual methods are not used separately from verbal and practical ones. They are intended for visual-sensual acquaintance with various kinds of phenomena, objects, processes, etc. Familiarization occurs with the help of various drawings, reproductions, diagrams, etc. recent times schools are increasingly using screen technology.

Visual methods are usually divided into two groups:

- illustration methods;

- demonstration methods.

The illustration method is characterized by the display of various kinds of illustrative aids, tables, diagrams, sketches, models, posters, paintings, maps, etc.

The method of demonstrations is the inclusion of instruments, experiments, films, technical installations, filmstrips, etc. in the educational process.

Despite the division of visual methods into illustrative and demonstrative, this classification is very conditional. The fact is that some visual aids can refer to both illustrations and demonstrative aids. Recently, computers have been widely used as visual information Technology, which make it possible to perform a lot of actions, including modeling the studied processes and phenomena. In this regard, computer classes have already been set up in many schools. Students in them can get acquainted with working on a computer and see in action many of the processes that they previously learned about from textbooks. Moreover, computers allow you to create models of certain situations and processes, view the answer options and subsequently choose the optimal ones.

Using visual methods, it is necessary to take into account some features:

- First of all, it is necessary to take into account the age of schoolchildren;

- there should be a measure in everything, including when using visual aids, i.e. they should be demonstrated gradually, in accordance with the moment of the lesson;

- visual aids must be shown so that they can be seen by every student;

- when showing visual aids, the main points (main thoughts) should be clearly distinguished;

- before giving explanations, they are carefully thought out in advance;

- when using visual aids, remember that they must exactly match the material presented;

- visual aids are designed to encourage students to look for the necessary information in them.

Practical teaching methods

Practical teaching methods are necessary for the formation of practical skills and abilities in schoolchildren. The basis of practical methods is practice. There are several types of practices:

- exercises;

- laboratory works;

- practical work.

Let's look at each of these methods in more detail.

Exercises are repeated actions, both oral and practical, aimed at improving their quality and mastering them. Exercises are necessary for absolutely every subject, as they form skills and consolidate the acquired knowledge. And this is typical for all stages of the educational process. However, the methodology and the very nature of the exercise for different subjects will be different because they are influenced by the specific material, the issue under study and the age of the students.

There are several types of exercises. By nature, they are divided into: 1) oral; 2) written; 3) graphic; 4) educational and labor.

According to the degree of independence of students, these are: reproducing exercises, i.e. contributing to the consolidation of educational material; training exercises, i.e. used to apply new knowledge.

There are also commenting exercises, when the student speaks out loud and comments on his actions. Such exercises help the teacher in his work, because they allow you to find and correct typical mistakes in the students' answers.

Each type of exercise has its own characteristics. So, oral exercises provide an opportunity to develop the logical abilities of the student, his memory, speech and attention. The main characteristics of oral exercises are dynamism and time saving.

A slightly different function is performed by written exercises. Their main purpose is to consolidate the studied material, to develop skills and abilities. In addition, they, like oral exercises, contribute to the development of logical thinking, culture writing and autonomy of students. Written exercises can be used both separately and in combination with oral and graphic exercises.

Graphic exercises - the work of schoolchildren related to the preparation of diagrams, graphs, drawings, drawings, albums, technological maps, stands, posters, sketches, etc. This also includes laboratory and practical work and excursions. As a rule, graphic exercises are used by the teacher in conjunction with written ones, since both are needed to solve common educational problems. With the help of graphic exercises, children learn to better perceive and assimilate the material. Moreover, they perfectly develop spatial imagination in children. Graphic exercises can be both training, reproducing, and creative.

Training and labor exercises are the practical work of students aimed at the development of production and labor activities. Thanks to such exercises, the student learns to apply theoretical knowledge in practice, in work. They also play an educational role.

However, exercises cannot become effective on their own unless certain conditions are taken into account. First, students must do them consciously. Secondly, when performing them, it is necessary to take into account the didactic sequence; So, first, students work on exercises to memorize educational material, then on exercises that help memorize it. After that, there are exercises to reproduce in a non-standard situation what was previously studied. At the same time, an important role is played by Creative skills student. Equally important to understanding school curriculum exercises called "problem-search". They give the opportunity to develop intuition in children.

Another type of practical methods is laboratory work, i.e. conducting experiments by schoolchildren on assignment and under the guidance of a teacher. At the same time, various devices, tools and technical means are used, with the help of which the children study some phenomenon.

Sometimes laboratory work is a research process for the study of any one phenomenon. For example, observations can be made of plant growth, weather, animal development, etc.

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