A form of mental reflection that consists in fixing. Cognitive mental processes

Memory- a form of mental reflection, which consists in fixing, preserving and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.

Memory connects the past of the subject with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

Psychology of cognitive processes

Memory-- the basis mental activity. Without it, it is impossible to understand the foundations of the formation of behavior, thinking, consciousness, subconsciousness. Therefore, in order to better understand a person, it is necessary to know as much as possible about our memory.

Images of objects or processes of reality that we perceived earlier, and now mentally reproduce, are called representations.

Representation memories are a reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses. Representations of the imagination-- this is a presentation about objects that we have never perceived in such combinations or in such form. Representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter are only the material from which we create new representations with the help of the imagination.

Memory is based on associations, or connections. Objects or phenomena connected in reality are connected in the memory of a person. We can, having met with one of these objects, by association recall another associated with it; remember something-- means to connect what you want to remember with something already known, to form an association.

From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two kinds of associations: by contiguity, by similarity and by contrast. Association by adjacency combines two phenomena related in time or space. Such an association by adjacency is formed, for example, when memorizing the alphabet: when naming a letter, the next one after it is remembered. association by similarity connects two phenomena that have similar features: when one of them is mentioned, the other is remembered.

Association by contrast connects two opposite phenomena.

In addition to these species, there are complex associations - meaning associations; in them two phenomena are connected, which in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These connections, associations in meaning, are the basis of our knowledge.

and sometimes, on the contrary, a connection arises from one time, if in the cortex hemispheres a strong focus of excitation arose in the brain, facilitating the formation of a temporary connection.

More important condition for the formation of an association is business reinforcement, i.e., the inclusion of what is required to be remembered in the actions of students, their application of knowledge in the very process of assimilation.

Basic memory processes are memorization, preservation, recognition and reproduction.

memorization-- a process aimed at storing the impressions received in memory, a prerequisite for preservation.

Preservation- the process of active processing, systematization, generalization of the material, mastering it.

Reproduction and recognition-- processes of restoring what was previously perceived. The difference between them lies in the fact that recognition takes place when the object is encountered again, when it is perceived again. Reproduction takes place in the absence of an object.

Types of memory:

1. involuntary memory (information is remembered by itself without special memorization, but in the course of performing activities, in the course of working on information). Strongly developed in childhood, weakens in adults.
2. Arbitrary memory (information is memorized purposefully with the help of special techniques). Efficiency arbitrary memory depends:
1. From the purposes of memorization(how strongly, for a long time a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass the exam, then soon after the exam a lot will be forgotten, if the goal is to learn for a long time, for the future professional activity, then little information is forgotten.
2. From teaching methods. Learning methods are:
- a) mechanical verbatim repetition-- works mechanical memory, It takes a lot of effort, time, and the results are low. Mechanical memory is a memory based on the repetition of material without comprehending it;
- b) logical paraphrase, which includes logical understanding of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. Efficiency logical memory 20 times higher, better than mechanical memory;
- in) figurative techniques memorization (translation of information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures) - figurative memory works. figurative memory it happens different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;
- G) mnemonic techniques memorization (special techniques to facilitate memorization).

The ability to constantly accumulate information, which is the most important feature of the psyche, is universal in nature, covers all areas and periods of mental activity and in many cases is realized automatically, almost unconsciously. An example is the case: absolutely illiterate woman fell ill and, in a feverish delirium, loudly shouted out Latin and Greek sayings, the meaning of which she clearly did not understand. It turned out that as a child she served with a pastor who used to memorize aloud quotes from ancient classics. The woman involuntarily remembered them forever, which, Eprochem, she herself did not suspect before her illness.

All living beings have memory. Data have appeared on the ability to memorize even in plants. In the very broad sense memory can be defined as a mechanism for fixing information acquired and used by a living organism. Human memory is primarily the accumulation, consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction by a person of his experience, i.e., everything that happened to him. Memory is a way of the existence of the psyche in time, the retention of the past, that is, that which is no longer in the present. So memory--a necessary condition for the unity of the human psyche, our psychological identity.

Memory structure Most psychologists recognize the existence of several levels of memory, differing in how long each of them can store information. The first level corresponds to direct or touch type memory. Its systems hold fairly accurate and complete data on how the world is perceived by our senses at the level of receptors. The duration of data saving is 0.1-0.5 seconds.

Finding out how our sensory memory works is not difficult. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again. Watch how the sharp, clear picture you see lasts for a while, and then slowly disappears. This is the content of sensory memory. If the information received in this way attracts the attention of higher parts of the brain, it will be stored for about 20 seconds more (without repeating or replaying the signal while the brain processes and interprets it). This is the second level... short term memory.

Information like multiple last words a sentence (which you have just heard or read), phone numbers, someone's last name, can be retained by short-term memory in a very limited capacity: five to nine numbers, letters, or the name of five to nine objects. And only by making a conscious effort, again and again repeating the material contained in short-term memory, can it be retained for an indefinitely long time.

Consequently, short-term memory is still amenable to conscious regulation, can be controlled by a person. And the "immediate imprints" of sensory information cannot be repeated, they remain only tenths of a second and the psyche has no way to extend them.

Any information first falls into short-term memory, which ensures that the information presented once is remembered for a short time, after which the information can be forgotten completely or go to long-term memory, but under the condition of 1-2-fold repetition. Short-term memory (TS) is limited in volume, with a single presentation, an average of 7 ± 2 is placed in the SP. This is the magic formula of human memory, i.e., on average, from one time a person can remember from 5 to 9 words, numbers, numbers, figures , pictures, pieces of information. The main thing is to ensure that these "pieces" are more informationally saturated by grouping, combining numbers, words into a single holistic "piece-image". The volume of short-term memory for each person is individual, according to the volume of short-term memory, one can predict the success of training according to the formula: OKP / 2 + 1 = training score.

long term memory provides long-term storage of information. It can be of two types: 1) DP with conscious access (i.e., a person can voluntarily extract, recall the necessary information); 2) DP is closed (a person in natural conditions does not have access to it, only with hypnosis, with irritation of parts of the brain, he can access it and update images, experiences, pictures of his whole life in all details).

RAM- a type of memory that manifests itself in in the course of performing a certain activity, serving this activity due to the preservation of information coming from both the CP and the DP, necessary for the implementation of the current activity.

Intermediate memory ensures the preservation of information for several hours, accumulates information during the day, and the time of night sleep is given by the body to clear intermediate memory and categorize the information accumulated over the past day, transfer it to long-term memory. At the end of sleep, the intermediate memory is again ready for reception. new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, the intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental, computational operations is disrupted, attention and short-term memory decrease, errors appear in speech, in actions.

Long-term memory with conscious access is characterized by forgetting patterns: everything unnecessary, secondary, as well as a certain percentage of the necessary information is forgotten.

Forgetting can be complete or partial, long-term or temporary. With complete forgetting, the material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized. Partial forgetting of the material occurs when a person reproduces it incompletely or with errors, and also when he recognizes, but cannot reproduce. Physiologists explain temporary forgetting by the inhibition of temporary nerve connections, complete forgetting by their extinction. Research into the forgetting process has revealed interesting feature: the most accurate and complete reproduction of complex and extensive material usually occurs not immediately after memorization, but after 2-3 days. This improved delayed playback is called reminiscence.

forgetting factors Most problems with pa-

wrinkling is not associated with difficulties in memorization, but rather with recall. Some data modern science allow us to state that the information in memory is stored indefinitely, but for the most part a person (under normal conditions) cannot use it. It is practically inaccessible to him, he “forgot” it, although he rightly claims that he once “knew” about it, read, heard, but ... This is forgetting, temporary situational, sudden, complete or partial, selective and etc., i.e. a process that leads to a loss of clarity and a reduction in the volume of information that can be updated in the psyche of data. The depth of forgetting can be amazing, sometimes those who "forget" deny the very fact of their acquaintance with what they need to remember, do not recognize what they have repeatedly encountered.

Forgetting can be due to various factors. The first and most obvious of these is time. It takes less than an hour to forget half of the rote material.

To reduce forgetting it is necessary: 1) understanding, comprehension of information (mechanically learned, but not fully understood information is forgotten quickly and almost completely - curve 1 on the graph); 2) repetition of information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, because after an hour only 50% of the memory remains in memory

% memorization of information

% A 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

1 2 3 4 5 10 15 30 60 90

Elapsed time (in days)

Rice. 3.1. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve: a-- meaningless material; b-- logical processing; in- when repeating chanically memorized information). It is necessary to repeat more often in the first days after memorization, since these days the losses from forgetting are maximum. Better like this: on the first day - 2-3 repetitions, on the second day - 1-2 repetitions, on the third-seventh day - one repetition, then one repetition with an interval of 7-10 days. Remember that 30 repetitions in a month is more effective than 100 repetitions in a day. Therefore, systematic study, without overload, memorization in small portions during the semester with periodic repetitions after 10 days is much more effective than concentrated memorization of a large amount of information in a short session, causing mental and psychic overload and almost complete forgetting of information a week after the session.

Forgetting largely depends on the nature of the activity, immediately preceding memorization and occurring after it.

The negative impact of pre-memorization activities is called proactive inhibition. The negative impact of the activity following memorization is called retroactive braking, it is especially pronounced in those cases when, after memorization, an activity similar to it is performed or if this activity requires significant efforts.

When we noted that forgetting is determined by the time elapsed after memorization, we can assume an obvious dependence: what more time finding information in the psyche, the deeper the forgetting. But the psyche is characterized by paradoxical phenomena: older people (age is a temporary characteristic) easily recall the past, but just as easily forget what they just heard. This phenomenon is called "Ribot's Law" reverse memory.

An important factor in forgetting is usually considered the degree of activity in the use of available information. Forgetting what is not a constant need or need. This is true most of all in relation to semantic memory for information received in adulthood.

Childhood impressions, motor skills (cycling, playing the guitar, being able to swim) remain quite stable for decades, without any exercise. There is, however, a case when a man who spent about three years in prison forgot how to tie not only his tie, but also his shoelaces.

Forgetting msfgt be due to work defense mechanisms our psyche, which displace from consciousness into the subconscious impressions that traumatize us, where they are then more or less securely held. Consequently, what is “forgotten” is that which violates the psychological balance, causes constant negative tension (“motivated forgetting”).

Play Forms:

* recognition - a manifestation of memory that occurs when the object is re-perceived;
* memory, which is carried out in the absence of perception of the object;
*remembrance, which is the most active form reproduction, which largely depends on the clarity of the tasks set, on the degree of logical ordering of the memorized and information stored in the DP;
* reminiscence - delayed reproduction of previously perceived, seemingly forgotten;
* eidetism is a visual memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of what is perceived.

Types of memory AT according to the type of memory

My material distinguishes the following four types of memory. considered genetically primary motor memory, i.e., the ability to memorize and reproduce a system of motor operations (typing, tying a tie, using tools, driving a car and etc.). Then formed figurative memory, that is, the ability to store and use the data of our perception in the future. Depending on which analyzer took the greatest part in the formation of the image, one can speak of five subspecies of figurative memory: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. The human psyche is focused primarily on visual and auditory memory, which is characterized by great differentiation (especially “memory” for faces, situations, intonations and etc.).

Almost simultaneously with the motor is formed emotional memory, representing the imprint of the feelings we experienced, our own emotional states and affects. A person who was greatly frightened by a dog that jumped out of the entrance will shudder for a long time, passing by (memory of fear, shame, blind rage and etc.). The highest form of memory, inherent only to man, is considered to be verbal(sometimes called

verbal-logical or semantic) memory. With its help, the information base of the human intellect is formed, most of the mental actions (reading, counting, etc.) are carried out. Semantic memory as a product of culture includes forms of thinking, methods of cognition and analysis, basic grammar rules native language.

- subjective view of the world personal position. Rethinking reality, one's worldview is formed from:

events that have already taken place;
actual reality;
actions to take place.

The accumulated experience, the reproduction of acquired knowledge settles firmly in the past. The present contains information about internal state personality. The future is aimed at the realization of goals, objectives, intentions, displayed in dreams, fantasies.

The essence of the worldview passing through the psyche

1. Activation.

The psyche is fickle, it changes under the influence external factors and is constantly being improved in development. Everyone has own opinion about how the world is built around. Faced with the contradiction of other people, consciousness changes, transforms into reality, carrying a different meaning.

2. Focus.

Setting guidelines in life, a person sets himself tasks according to his strength. He will never take up a case that is contrary to his principles and does not bring him either moral or financial satisfaction of needs. There is a deliberate desire to transform the existing substance.

3. Adjustment.

Approach, conditions may change, but the mental is plastic to temporary transformations, adapts to any change.

4. Uniqueness.

Each has its own specific motivational characteristics and goals for self-development. The view of the world is refracted through the prism of life guidelines. This hinders the study psychological science only from one angle, it is necessary to evaluate all the qualities of different people to the same extent.

5. Lead.

The society creates a platform for the future, displaying the surrounding objects and current events in the current life. It attracts only the best and significant for the subsequent introduction into activity.

6. Evaluation by the object.

Individual traits are displayed directly in thinking. Analyzed possible situations, the attitude to the events is formed.

There are several stages that pass in the mind from the bodily to the sensual:

Sensory. The physical external aggressor acts on the cognitive processes of a person, forcing them to react with the body and thinking. The reaction occurs only to a significant stimulus.
Perceptual. Man unconsciously seeks general view display a complex of annoying elements.
The individual is guided by the cumulative manifestation, reacting to biologically insignificant stimulants that provoke the emergence of sensitivity to important stimuli.
Thinking. A strong relationship is established between objects. Man controls it with the help of brain function.

Steps of reflection of the psyche

The first is basic. The individual is guided by his feelings and receiving information from others, determines the manner of behavior in the future. His actions are influenced by the objects of reality. Having passed this stage, others are built on it. This level is never empty, it is multifaceted and constantly changing.
The second level has a main feature in creativity and the manifestation of the imagination. This is the highest stage in the development of the psyche, a person passes to it when he creates new model inferences about the environment. She comprehends the actions and adds images that have already been laid down.
A creative person is difficult to cope with emotions, her thinking consists of continuous ideas. Artistic ability are superimposed on the pictures that arise in the head, and their assimilation depends on subsequent interaction.
The third - its main criterion is the presence of speech. Logic and communication are related to mental activity based on the concepts and techniques used by the ancestors. He overshadows imagination, memory, sensual images, relying only on rationality in thinking and experience from the previous generation. This allows you to plan and manage your life path.

Only by rethinking and including all stages in his consciousness, a person can present the world in a generalized form from a unique point of view, different from those around him. And show it through behavior: facial expressions, gestures, posture.

Chapter 3. Psychology of cognitive processes

2. Patterns of memory

Memory is a form of mental reflection, which consists in fixing, preserving and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activities or return to the sphere of consciousness.

Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

Memory is the basis of mental activity. Without it, it is impossible to understand the foundations of the formation of behavior, thinking, consciousness, subconsciousness. Therefore, in order to better understand a person, it is necessary to know as much as possible about our memory.

Images of objects or processes of reality that we perceived earlier, and now mentally reproduce, are called representations.

Memory representations are reproductions, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses. Imagination representations are representations of objects that we have never perceived in such combinations or in such a form. Representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter are only the material from which we create new representations with the help of the imagination.

Memory is based on associations, or connections. Objects or phenomena connected in reality are connected in the memory of a person. We can, having met with one of these objects, by association recall another associated with it; to remember something means to connect what you want to remember with something already known, to form an association.

From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two kinds of associations: by contiguity, by similarity and by contrast. An adjacency association combines two phenomena that are related in time or space. Such an association by adjacency is formed, for example, when memorizing the alphabet: when naming a letter, the next one after it is remembered. A similarity association connects two phenomena that have similar features: when one of them is mentioned, the other is remembered.

Association by contrast connects two opposite phenomena.

In addition to these types, there are complex associations - associations in meaning; in them two phenomena are connected, which in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These connections, associations in meaning, are the basis of our knowledge.

For the formation of a temporary connection, a repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required; for the formation of an association, repetition is required. But repetition alone is not enough. Sometimes many repetitions do not give results, and sometimes, on the contrary, a connection arises from one time, if a strong focus of excitation has arisen in the cerebral cortex of the brain, facilitating the formation of a temporary connection.

A more important condition for the formation of an association is business reinforcement, i.e. the inclusion of what is required to be remembered in the actions of students, the application of knowledge by them in the process of assimilation.

The main processes of memory are memorization, preservation, recognition and reproduction.

Memorization is a process aimed at storing the received impressions in memory, a prerequisite for saving.
preservation - the process of active processing, systematization, generalization of the material, mastering it.
reproduction and recognition are the processes of restoring what was previously perceived. The difference between them lies in the fact that recognition takes place when the object is encountered again, when it is perceived again. reproduction takes place in the absence of the object.

Types of memory:

Violation of direct memory, or "Korsakov's syndrome", is manifested in the fact that memory for current events is impaired, a person forgets what he has just done, said, seen, so the accumulation of new experience and knowledge becomes impossible, although previous knowledge can be preserved.

Violations of the dynamics of mnestic activity can be observed (B.V. Zeigarnik): a person remembers well, but after a short time he cannot do it, for example, a person memorizes 10 words. And after the 3rd presentation - I remembered 6 words, and after the fifth - I can already say only 3 words, after the sixth - again 6 words, i.e. there are fluctuations in mnestic activity. This memory impairment is often observed in patients with vascular diseases brain, as well as after a brain injury, after intoxication as a manifestation of general mental exhaustion. Quite often there are forgetfulness, inaccuracy in assimilation of information, forgetting intentions as a result of a person's emotional instability.

Violations of mediated memory are also distinguished, when mediated methods of memorization, for example, pictures, symbols associated with some information, do not help, but make it difficult for memory to work, i.e. hints do not help in this case, but hinder.

If the “Zeigarnik effect” is observed during the full functioning of memory, i.e. incomplete actions are remembered better, then with many memory impairments, a violation of the motivational components of memory also occurs, i.e. pending actions are forgotten.

Interesting are the facts of memory deceptions, which usually take the form of an extremely one-sided selectivity of memories, false memories(confibulation) and memory distortions. They are usually due strong desires unsatisfied needs and desires. The simplest case: a child is given a candy, he quickly eats it, and then "forgets" about it and absolutely sincerely proves that he did not receive anything. It is almost impossible to convince him (like many adults) in such cases. Memory easily becomes a slave human passions, prejudices and inclinations. That is why unbiased, objective memories of the past are very rare. Memory distortions are often associated with a weakening of the ability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's, what a person actually experienced and what he heard or read about. With repeated repetition of such memories, their complete personification occurs, i.e. a person quite naturally and organically considers other people's thoughts, ideas that he himself sometimes rejected, recalls the details of events in which he never participated. This shows how closely memory is related to imagination, fantasy, and what is sometimes called psychological reality.

It turned out that the same subcortical areas (primarily the limbic system) that are responsible for the affective and motivational activation of the psyche play an important role in fixing information.

It was found that damage to the occipital lobes of the brain causes visual impairment, damage to the frontal lobes - emotions, destruction of the left hemisphere negatively affects speech, etc. But, to everyone's surprise, until very recently it was necessary to state the fact that not only animals, but also people can endure extensive brain damage without obvious memory impairment. The only regularity discovered was the most general character: the more extensive the damage to the brain, the more serious its consequences for memory. This position is called the law of mass action: memory is destroyed in proportion to the weight of the destroyed brain tissue. Even removing 20% of the brain (during surgical operations) does not lead to memory loss. Therefore, doubts arose about the existence of a localized memory center, a number of psychologists unambiguously argued that the entire brain should be considered an organ of memory.

At direct impact in some areas of the brain in consciousness, complex chains of memories can emerge, i.e. a person suddenly remembers something that he has long forgotten, and easily continues to remember the “forgotten” after the operation. Secondly, if not a memory center, then, in any case, a site was found that regulates the transfer of data from short-term memory to long-term memory, without which it is impossible to memorize newly received new information. This center is called the hippocampus and is located in the temporal lobe of the brain. After bilateral removal of the hippocampus, patients retained the memory of what was before the operation, but the memorization of new data was not observed.

They also try to influence memory processes with pharmacological and physical factors. Many scientists believe that searches in the field of memory management should be aimed at creating biologically active compounds that selectively affect learning processes (for example, caffeine, biogenic amines), short-term or long-term memory (substances that inhibit DNA and RNA synthesis, affect protein metabolism). etc.), on the creation and formation of engrams - substances that affect the change in cell proteins (from protoplasm to soma).

Now the study of pharmacological agents that affect memory is proceeding rapidly. It has been established that the long-known pituitary hormones can serve as memory stimulants. "Short" chains of amino acids - peptides, especially vasopressin, corticotropin significantly improve short-term and long-term memory.

According to the hypothesis about the physical structure of memory, the basis of the phenomenon of memory is the spatio-temporal pattern of the bioelectrical activity of nerve populations - discrete and electrotonic. Therefore, for memory management, it is more adequate to influence the brain and its subsystems with electrical, electromagnetic factors. Success can be achieved by influencing the brain with various physical factors - electrical and acoustic.

All this speaks of real possibility memory management.

Memory can be developed, trained, significantly improved, and its productivity increased. Memory productivity consists of parameters: volume, speed, accuracy, duration, readiness for memorization and reproduction. Memory productivity is influenced by subjective and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include: a person's interest in information, the chosen type of memorization, the methods of memorization used, innate abilities, the state of the body, previous experience, and the person's attitude. The objective factors influencing the productivity of memory include: the nature of the material, the amount of material, the visibility of the material, its rhythm, meaningfulness and understandability, its coherence and the specifics of the environment in which memorization takes place.

Summing up, we emphasize that memory ensures the integrity and development of a person’s personality, takes central position in the system of cognitive activity.

TEST QUESTIONS

Is intelligent activity possible without attention? What types and qualities of attention are manifested in a person?
What should be done in practice to prevent forgetting important material? What factors influence forgetting?
How is working memory different from short-term memory? What types and processes of memory are most effective for you?
What are mnemonic tricks?
How do memory disorders manifest themselves?
Why is memory central to cognitive activity?
What are the methods of influencing human memory?

LITERATURE

Atkinson R. Human memory and learning process. M., 1980
Wayne A.M., Kamenetskaya B.I. Human memory. M., 1973
Atkinson R. Memory and care for her. Eagle, 1992
Andreev O.A., Khromov L.N. memory training technique. Yekaterinburg, 1992
Baskakova I.L. preschooler's attention, methods of development. M., 1993
Golubeva E.A. Individual features of memory. M., 1980
Godfroy J. What is psychology. M., 1994
Leather F. Memory training. M., 1990
Lapp D. Improving memory at any age. M., 1993
Matyugin I.Yu., Chaekaberya EI Development of figurative memory. M., 1993
Norman D. Memory and learning. M., 1985
Postovit V.A. Memory. SPb., 1993
Shabanov P.D., Borodkin Yu.S. Memory disorders and their correction. L., 1989
Memory development. Riga, 1991

Memory

Memory- a form of mental reflection, which consists in fixing, saving, subsequent reproduction and forgetting of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

Representations of memory are a reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses.

Memory is based associations, or connections. Objects or phenomena connected in reality are connected in the memory of a person. Having met with one of these objects, we can, by association, recall another associated with it. To memorize something means to connect memorization with what is already known, to form an association. From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two types of associations: simple and complex. There are three types of simple associations: by adjacency(combine objects related in time and space), by resemblance(connect two phenomena that have similar features) and by contrast(connect two opposite phenomena). To complex species associations include semantic- in them two phenomena are connected, which in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect.

It is believed that the formation of links between various views is determined not by what the memorized material is in itself, but primarily by what the subject does with it. That is, the activity of the individual is the main factor determining (determining) the formation of all mental processes, including memory processes.

By arbitrariness:

1. Involuntary (memorization of information occurs by itself, for example, in the process of activity).

2. Arbitrary (information is remembered purposefully). Its effectiveness depends on:

1) Memory goals (whether a person wants to remember information for a day or forever);

2) Memorization techniques. These include:

Mechanical verbatim repetition - works mechanical memory(a lot of time and effort is expended with not very high results);

Logical retelling, including comprehension and systematization of the material - works logical memory. Its efficiency is much higher;

· figurative techniques(translation of information into graphs, diagrams, pictures) - works figurative memory. It can be of different types: visual, auditory, etc. A subspecies of figurative memory is eidetic memory - a type of human visual memory associated with the ability to clearly and in detail, restore visual images of what is seen in memory.

· Mnemotechnical methods of memorization. These include, for example

o The Cicero method (placement) - fixing the memory sequence by combining remembered objects with a sequence of places that a person often visits (for example, a shopping list with their location in the kitchen);

o The system of words-hangers (a person memorizes a number of words that serve him as "hangers" on which he "hangs" memorized elements)

o Organizing charts

o Formation of semantic phrases from initial letters available information

o http://www.piter-press.ru/attachment.php?barcode=978531800397&at=exc&n=0 – thousands of them!

By the time of information storage:

1. Short-term. All information first enters it, provides memorization of the information presented once for a short time (5-7 minutes), after which the information can be completely forgotten or transferred to long-term memory, but subject to 1-2 repetitions of information. Short-term memory (TS) is limited in volume, with a single presentation, an average of 7 + 2 objects is placed in the TS ( Miller's wallet).

2. Long-term memory provides long-term storage of information: there are two types:

1) DP with conscious access (i.e. a person can voluntarily extract, recall the necessary information);

2) DP is closed (a person in natural conditions does not have access to it, but only with hypnosis, with irritation of parts of the brain, he can access it and update images, experiences, pictures of a person’s whole life in all details).

3. RAM works in the course of performing a certain activity, serving this activity by storing information coming from both the CP and the DP, which is necessary to perform the current activity.

4. Intermediate memory ensures the preservation of information for several hours, accumulates information during the day, and the time of night sleep is given by the body to clear the intermediate memory and categorize the information accumulated over the past day, transferring it into long-term memory. At the end of sleep, the intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. With lack of sleep, intermediate memory failures occur - a person remembers old data, but hardly remembers new ones.

Memory is a form of mental reflection, which consists in fixing, preserving and subsequent reproduction of past experience. When objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality act on the sense organs in the cerebral cortex, temporary connections are formed that can be restored (actualized) in the future. This process is called memorization (imprinting) and is physiological basis playback (remembering). Unlike perception, during reproduction, previously perceived images, as well as the feelings, thoughts and actions associated with them, under certain conditions, appear again, without affecting the sense organs of the objects and phenomena that caused them. Former connections can be updated even when the corresponding stimuli again act on a person - the process of recognition.

Memorization, reproduction and recognition are processes of memory - a reflection of what was previously perceived, experienced, performed and comprehended by a person.

Objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality are not perceived by a person in isolation from each other, respectively, and they are remembered in connection with each other. Under the influence of these objective dependencies, temporary connections arise in the cerebral cortex, which serve as the physiological basis for memorization and reproduction (association). Associations by contiguity in space and time reflect the spatio-temporal relations of objects and phenomena, associations by similarity - their similarity, associations by contrast - the opposite. Along with these associations, there are others due to more complex relationships between objects (for example, causal relationships).

hallmark human memory is that speech, the second nervous system, is involved in memory processes. The word turns them into a complex purposeful activity that includes various mental operations(comparison, classification, generalization). Like all mental phenomena, memorization, reproduction and recognition are inextricably linked with the characteristics of a person’s personality, largely depend on his needs and interests, inclinations and habits, life values etc.

Memorization occurs in the process of sensations and perceptions. Its original form is involuntary (unintentional) memorization - a simple imprinting of the consequences of some impact without a pre-set goal and without the use of special techniques that help this process. A person involuntarily remembers a lot of the surrounding reality (objects and phenomena, actions and deeds of people, etc.), while there is a certain selectivity - what is of vital importance is remembered better.

Arbitrary memorization is a special complex mental activity, subordinate to the task of remembering and consisting of a variety of actions aimed at best achievement this goal. One of these techniques is memorization - repeated repetition educational material to its complete and unmistakable memorization. Completion of the task to remember with other equal conditions makes voluntary memorization noticeably more productive than involuntary. Without such a task, much of what is repeatedly perceived in life is not remembered. For example, a person most often cannot reproduce characteristics surrounding and systematically perceived objects, if you have not previously set yourself this goal.

The setting of particular, special tasks (memorize the main, main thoughts; the sequence of facts; general signs, etc.) has a great influence on memorization and subsequent reproduction. An important role is also played by the focus on the strength of memorization. Experience shows that if there is an appropriate attitude in the learning process, in the event of an unexpected check, material that was remembered “for a short time” (for example, among unscrupulous listeners before an exam) is reproduced worse than what was remembered “for a long time”. Therefore, in the learning process, it is desirable to correctly set memorization tasks and indicate with what completeness and strength it is necessary to remember given material.

So for better memory it is necessary not only to set the task - to remember any material, but to organize the activities of students in such a way that this material is a direct object of active and independent activity.

Distinguish meaningful and mechanical memorization. The first is based on understanding, comprehension of the studied material and has a huge superiority over the second. At the same time, a person

As if putting things in order in the material being studied, making it more convenient for memorization and reproduction (Fig. 23). The ability to use such techniques in teaching characterizes the degree of development of a person's logical memory, which is inherent in a highly developed and organized mind.

Mechanical (meaningless) memorization is based on single temporal connections, reflecting mainly the external sequence of phenomena. In contrast, meaningful memorization is based on semantic connections, which are generalized and systematized with the help of words and are associations. The more

The connections formed by past experience are diverse and systematized, the more firmly and quickly memorization occurs. Therefore, in the learning process, as a rule, rote learning is not recommended. The material being studied must first be understood and only after that it is possible, if necessary, to proceed to verbatim memorization.

It is important to take into account that, in addition to past experience, previously acquired knowledge serves as a solid support for memory processes. The material intended for memorization must be included in the existing system of knowledge, while noting the similarities and differences with the already known (otherwise, the material similar in content will merge with the previously learned, and the reproduction will not be accurate). Meaningful memorization is also in many cases helped by visual aids illustrating connections and relationships between objects and phenomena.

Sometimes artificial associations of varying complexity are used for better memorization. For example, when learning the rules of a raid service, light signals are often memorized as phrases (“come in brother, come in”) denoting a combination of lights (green, white, green). But at the same time, it must be remembered that excessive complication of techniques leads to the substitution of meaningful memorization for mechanical ones. Meaningful associations that reflect the most significant connections between objects and phenomena serve as the basis for quick and lasting memorization.

By itself, understanding does not lead to accurate and lasting memorization. Success is most often achieved by repeatedly repeating the perception of the material for a certain time. If rote learning is the result of misunderstanding, then repetition based on understanding reinforces memorization and allows you to better understand the educational material.

When repeating, the memorized material is compared with similar and opposed to it, which leads to a greater differentiation of temporal relationships. At the same time, the formation of new temporary connections can occur, due to which memorization becomes more meaningful. But the effectiveness, ultimately, is determined by the method of presenting the educational material, by how the teacher calculated the frequency of its study, the rhythm of presentation, distributing time breaks, determining the use of new stimuli, etc. Otherwise, due to the monotonous repetition of one and the same material in nerve cells inhibition occurs. The success of repetitions is determined not so much by their quantity, but by their quality.

A variety of repetitions allows you to create new combinations of formed and emerging temporary connections. Comparison of new and old materials, their classification and generalization makes it possible to highlight similarities and differences, which makes memorization more accurate. The variation and combination of methods of perception (visual, auditory, motor) makes memory processes more flexible and interesting, as well as setting special tasks for trainees - not just repeating the material, but giving new examples, drawing up diagrams, tables.

It is also effective to reproduce educational material even before it is learned (since this process is more active than reading, it requires a more efficient state of the cerebral cortex, which facilitates the formation and differentiation of temporary connections). The role of self-control during repetition is very important - repeated reproductions are less stable than the first ones, therefore it is necessary to track errors and correct them during subsequent reproduction.

Not less important correct distribution repetitions in time. Constant repetition gives a much smaller effect than its distribution over several days. Of course, this is quite individual, so the teacher must choose the right time interval between repetitions - too large or too small will not give the desired effect. This is explained by the fact that at high concentration repetitions in the cerebral cortex, protective inhibition occurs, which increases with increasing concentration. And, conversely, distributed learning creates favorable conditions for the formation of stable differentiation of connections. This applies not only to the initial memorization, but also to subsequent repetitions of the material (for example, when preparing for exams).

Depending on the quantity and quality of the memorized material, with the same number of repetitions, the result will be different. It has been established that as the volume of educational material increases, the time required to memorize it does not increase in direct proportion, but much more. This is due to the increasing deceleration nerve cells as a result of continuous work. At the same time, the productivity of memorizing visual-figurative and verbal material is different - visual images of objects are remembered and stored better than visual and auditory images of words.

The criterion for the strength of memorization is reproduction in the absence of objects. It can be direct, immediate (without clearly perceived intermediate associations) and indirect, mediated (with the participation of intermediate associations). For example, the well-known Morse code is usually remembered by a signalman without intermediate associations. And the reproduction by a watch officer of the rules for evading enemy weapons (at the first stages of training) is often based on intermediate associations (remembering illustrative examples, methods, etc.).

If reproduction is carried out without a deliberately set goal, it is called unintentional; if it is caused by a directly set task, it is intentional. In this case, reproduction is selective: in one case, you need to remember certain algorithm, in the other - to which class of ships the target belongs; in some cases, verbatim reproduction is necessary, in others - in your own words, etc. Moreover, selectivity largely depends on personal qualities human - reproduction of the same events different people differs depending on their life experience. Reproduction is modified and rebuilt in accordance with the tasks of the activity, the interests of a person, his emotional state, personality traits.

It should be noted that the task must be set correctly and correctly - otherwise a person may go the wrong way and not remember the right one. Recall is also difficult with fatigue, fear, anxiety and self-doubt.

characteristic feature reproduction is the restructuring (reconstruction) of the reproduced material. This may consist in a violation of the sequence in which the perception occurred; in the transfer of the original in a generalized or schematized form; in its excessive concretization and detailing; in direct distortion. The main reasons for rearranging the reproduced material are:

The formation of new temporary connections under the influence of experience gained after memorizing this material;

The dominance of certain stimuli depending on the characteristics of the individual or under the influence of various tasks of activity;

Wide primary generalization of stimuli during initial superficial perception.

More simple than reproduction is the process of recognition. It may be varying degrees certainty and speed, depending on the similarity of new and old stimuli and the strength of memorization. With a significant coincidence and sufficient strength, recognition occurs almost instantly, with an insufficient one, it turns into a relatively long process of recall (at first, only a feeling of familiarity arises).

Recognition cannot be a reliable criterion for the strength of memorization. If an object perceived for the first time has similar features with something already familiar, then a feeling of familiarity may arise, which in this case is a false positive. Along with this, loss of recognition may also occur. For some diseases, she can wear prolonged nature(for example, agnosia in brain injury). A short-term loss of recognition is caused by temporary inhibition of the connections necessary for this.

The result of reproduction are representations (visual, auditory, etc.) - reproduced images of objects and phenomena obtained in the process of their perception. They arise associatively under the influence of immediate (objective) or verbal stimuli acting at the moment. Their physiological basis is the work of both signaling nervous systems. Since perception occurs during the interaction of various analyzers, then representations various kinds(visual, auditory, etc.) are combined with each other. For example, the idea of appearance familiar person are combined with the idea of his voice, gait, etc.

Representations can arise unintentionally (involuntarily) and intentionally (arbitrarily). In the first case, for example, when an acoustician reports on the noise of a surface target of a certain class, the watch officer has an image of a ship belonging to this class. The second type is often used in solving challenging tasks. So, during the initial determination of a malfunction, a specialist often mentally imagines a circuit of a given device and an algorithm for its operation.

As a result of repeated perception of similar objects in the emerging image individual characteristics are smoothed out, and the representation is of a generalized, schematic nature (example with the image of a destroyer).

What is not of vital importance for a person, does not arouse his interest, does not meet needs and does not occupy a significant place in activity, does not receive sufficient reinforcement. In this case, extinction inhibition rapidly develops in the cerebral cortex, which serves as the physiological basis for forgetting - incomplete or erroneous recall and recognition, or the inability to recall or recognize.

First of all, the finer differentiations are inhibited, so the details are forgotten faster than general ideas, and of the details, those that aroused the greatest interest or had an emotional impact last longer. Under the influence of certain stimuli, connections can be restored (disinhibited). And this can happen even after a long period of time.

The cause of short-term forgetting may be the effect of negative induction caused by strong extraneous stimuli. In cases of fatigue during prolonged work of nerve cells, protective inhibition occurs, which leads to a temporary forgetting of the learned material. After a rest, the temporarily forgotten can be restored.

For the first time after memorization, forgetting occurs faster than in the future (Fig. 24). The rate of forgetting depends on the volume and content of the material. Semantic material can be stored in memory for a long time, however, with an increase in its volume, the rate of forgetting approaches the rate of forgetting meaningless material.

When playing complex and extensive material, often the initial reproduction, immediately following the perception of the material, turns out to be less complete than after 2–3 days. This phenomenon is called reminiscence. It arises due to protective inhibition or negative induction caused by the action of the previous and subsequent parts of the material being memorized. With delayed playback, inhibited links are updated again. This phenomenon occurs more frequently in children than in adults.

The emergence of negative induction from the previous to subsequent memorization of the material leads to the phenomena of retroactive and proactive inhibition. With retroactive inhibition (reverse action), the activity following memorization causes inhibition of the newly formed temporary connections, which reduces the degree of reproduction of the memorized material. This is especially noticeable when it is necessary to sequentially memorize two materials similar in content. This inhibition also increases when memorizing difficult material.

Proactive (acting forward) braking is expressed in negative influence previous activity for subsequent memorization. The only difference here is that the result affects not the previous, but the subsequent memorization. These phenomena explain the fact that when memorizing extensive material homogeneous in content, its beginning and end are remembered better, and the middle is worse, since it experiences an inhibitory effect of both the previous and subsequent parts of the material being memorized. But this does not apply to those parts that contain the main content or are of particular interest.

Depending on the ratio of the two signaling systems There are three types of memory: visual-figurative, verbal-abstract and intermediate. With the first type, objects, pictures, faces, colors, sounds, etc. are better remembered; with the second - verbal formulations, concepts, numbers, etc.; in the third case, both are approximately to the same extent. A person with the first type of memory, when memorizing, tries to use specific images, with the second - verbal designations and verbal logic circuits.

Depending on the degree of participation of various analyzers, there are the following types of memory: visual, auditory, motor and combined (mixed). It has been found that the most common combined type(visual-motor and somewhat less auditory-motor). Pure memory types are rare.