Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles, the grounds for distinguishing parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. First, these grounds are syntactic properties the words. Some words are included in the grammatical composition of the sentence, others are not. Some of the sentences included in the grammatical composition are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between the members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, character grammatical meanings which a particular word can express, the system of its forms.

A certain role is also played by the ability of words to express that generalized meaning (it is called categorical, or classifying), which is formed by the lexical and grammatical meanings of specific words of a particular class - the meaning of an object, attribute, process, etc.

Based on the foregoing, all the words of the Russian language are divided into sentences included in the grammatical composition and not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them stand out the words significant and official.

Significant words are independent members of the sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, category of state.

2. Sometimes as independent parts speeches are also divided into participles and participles.

3. Pronouns as a whole do not have their own unified grammatical features that would distinguish them as a special grammatical category words. Therefore, in the future, following the "Russian Grammar" (M., 1980), they will be considered from the point of view of their grammatical similarity with other parts of speech.

Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among significant words on the morphological basis of mutability-invariability, on the one hand, names and a verb are distinguished, on the other hand, an adverb and a category of state.

The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as a circumstance, category of state - as a predicate). impersonal offer: "I'm sad because you're having fun" (L.), and also by the fact that, unlike adverbs, the words of the category of state are able to control ("I'm sad", "happy for you"; "How fun, having shod sharp iron feet, Slide on the mirror of stagnant, smooth rivers!" - P.).

Among the changeable significant words, the names and the verb are opposed to each other by their morphological categories. The verb has a set of specific morphological categories - person, tense, mood, aspect and voice. Its typical function is to be a predicate in a sentence.

All names are united by the presence of the category of case. The noun and the adjective also have the categories of gender and number. But for adjectives, their concrete realization is determined by the noun with which the adjective is combined (cf .: "May day", but " may night", "May morning"). In addition, all names differ in the nature of their connection with other words (see about this in the description of the corresponding parts of speech).

Service words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (included in the grammatical composition of the sentence) serve only to express different kind grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not part of the offer. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.

These include prepositions, conjunctions, and particles. At the same time, prepositions serve to express the relationship of a noun to other words, unions establish a connection between members of a sentence and parts complex sentence. Particles are involved in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction certain type sentences (for example, interrogative ones) (for more details, see the "Particles" section).

Words that are not part of the grammatical composition of the sentence include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia.

Modal words (possibly, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the statement. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (oh, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeia - words that convey some sounds and noises. These last three digits of words, like service words, are unchangeable.

Rakhmanova L.I., Suzdaltseva V.N. Modern Russian language. - M, 1997.

Depending on the lexical meaning, on the character morphological features and syntactic function, all words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech.
The parts of speech are the categories of the most general. Nouns have general meaning objectivity, adjective - quality, verb - action, etc. All these meanings (subjectivity, quality, action) refer to common lexical and grammatical meanings, while the actual lexical meanings of words, as a rule, are different, and the same stem can become a source of formation of words that differ in their grammatical features, i.e. . words different parts speech.
Morphological features of different parts of speech are different. For example, nouns have the categories of gender, case, and number. Adjectives also have grammatical categories of gender, number and case. But if the gender, number and case of a noun are grammatically independent categories, then for an adjective they depend entirely on the noun to which this adjective refers. Verbs have categories of person, tense, mood, aspect, pledge, number, while the categories of tense, mood, aspect, pledge are inherent only to the verb. And the category of number covers different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs), the category of person is also inherent in pronouns. The category of number is manifested in all parts of speech in different ways. For a noun, this is an independent (non-syntactic) category, for adjectives and verbs it is a dependent (syntactic) category.
Parts of speech differ in the nature of morphological changes: nouns change in cases and numbers (decline), but not in gender; adjectives change not only by cases and numbers, but also by gender; verbs - according to persons, numbers, tenses and moods (conjugate), and adverbs and impersonal predicative words (state category) are distinguished by immutability.
In some, in general case changeable, parts of speech are highlighted individual words that do not undergo morphological changes. This includes, for example, nouns borrowed from other languages ​​(cinema, bra, muffler, etc.), which do not change either in cases or in numbers; borrowed adjectives such as khaki, mini, beige, etc.
Depending on which member of the sentence is the word of this part of speech, and depending on what other words this word is combined with in the sentence, syntactic functions are determined, or syntactic roles parts of speech. For example, nouns, which have the basic meaning of objectivity, most often act in the sentence as a subject and an object. Adjectives that have the meaning of quality perform the functions of a definition, and verbs, having the main meaning of an action or state, act mainly as a predicate.
In addition, parts of speech differ in their compatibility.
In modern Russian, according to tradition, all parts of speech are divided into two large classes - into independent (significant) and service parts of speech. In a special group of words, some grammarians distinguish modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words.
To talk about the existence in the modern Russian language of some kind of unified and generally accepted classification parts of speech we cannot. So, in textbooks on the morphology of the Russian language, several part-of-speech classifications are presented. Therefore, in our future work, we will be guided by
and 1 and and and /-
one classification of parts of speech, namely the one that is set out in the textbook Shansky N.M., Tikhonov A.N. Word formation. Morphology // Modern Russian language: at 3 o'clock - M., 1987., Part 2.
Independent (or significant) parts of speech have independent lexical and grammatical meanings and act as main or minor members suggestions. The independent parts of speech include 9 categories of words: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, participle, gerund, adverb, words of the state category
Service words are deprived of a nominative (nominal) function. They are a kind of grammatical means for expressing relations and connections between words, parts of sentences, sentences (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as for conveying certain semantic and emotional shades of meanings expressed by independent parts of speech (particles).
Functional words include prepositions, conjunctions, particles.
The special parts of speech include modal words, which, like the service parts of speech, do not have a nominative function. They express the speaker's assessment of his statement from the point of view of the relationship of what is reported to objective reality (of course, others are possible).
Interjections also do not have the function of naming. They are the spokesmen for certain feelings (ah! Oh-oh-oh! Alas! etc.) and expressions of will (get out! scat! ts! etc.). Like modal words, interjections are invariable and usually are not members of a sentence, although intonationally they are always connected with the sentence to which they adjoin.
Onomatopoeic words are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, etc. (quack-quack, cuckoo, mu-u, ding-ding, etc.). In their syntactic functions, they are similar to interjections, but unlike the latter, they often do not express any feelings or expressions of will.

Introduction

The part of speech is admittedly one of the most general categories language. They in a certain way group words with similar lexical and grammatical characteristics, with the same way of displaying objective reality. Therefore, the parts of speech have attracted and continue to attract special interest both in solving important theoretical issues and in the practical development of the language. However, despite a large number of work on this issue, the problem of parts of speech remains unresolved. For the science of language, the words spoken by O.P. Sunik about four decades ago: "A very old and very confusing question about parts of speech, about their linguistic nature, about their quantity and quality in languages various types and families did not receive, as you know, a satisfactory solution either in grammatical studies on individual languages, nor in works on general linguistics. "The question of parts of speech has occupied the minds of scientists since ancient times.

Aristotle, Plato, Yaska, Panini were engaged in research in this area; in Russian linguistics, L.V. Shcherba, V.V.

Vinogradov, A. A. Shakhmatov and others.

Principles of classification of parts of speech

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech - the main lexical and grammatical categories, according to which the words of the language are distributed on the basis of signs: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) syntactic (syntactic functions of the word).

Parts of speech are categories of the most general nature. Nouns have a general meaning of objectivity, adjectives - qualities, a verb - actions, etc. All these meanings (subjectivity, quality, action) are among the general lexico-grammatical meanings, while the actual lexical meanings of words are different, and the same stem can become a source of formation of words that differ in grammatical features, i.e. different parts of speech. For example, from the bases that have the general meaning of objectivity - stone-, tree-, one can also form nouns stone, tree, and adjectives stone, wooden, and verbs to stone, to become woody; from the bases that have the general meaning of quality - white-, deaf-, not only adjectives white, deaf or verbs to turn white, deafen, but also nouns whiteness, deafness can be formed. The lexical meanings of the stems, even within the same part of speech, can be different and differ markedly from the grammatical meanings. For example, adjectives, along with the meaning of quality - white, thin, can be associated with the meaning of objectivity - golden, brick, the process of action - evasive, loose, etc. . Adjectives express objectivity and the process of action not abstractly, but only as a sign of some object or phenomenon of reality (a golden bracelet, a brick house, an evasive answer, bulk material), as belonging to an object or phenomenon, while nouns that have the meaning of quality (whiteness, deafness) or action (running around, uprooting), denote independent (independent) concepts and may have adjectives that define them: pleasant whiteness, heavy deafness, constant running around, fresh uprooting, etc.

Morphological features of different parts of speech are different. For example, nouns have the categories of gender, case, and number. Adjectives also have grammatical categories of gender, number and case. But if the gender, number and case of nouns are grammatically independent categories, then for adjectives they entirely depend on the noun to which the adjective refers. Verbs have the category of person, tense, mood, aspect, voice, number. At the same time, the categories of time, mood, aspect, voice are inherent only in the verb. And the category of number covers different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs), the category of person is also inherent in pronouns.

Parts of speech differ in the nature of morphological changes: nouns change in cases and numbers (decline), but not in gender; adjectives change not only by cases and numbers, but also by gender; verbs - according to persons, numbers, tenses and moods (conjugate), and adverbs and impersonal predicative words (state category) are distinguished by immutability.

In some inflected parts of speech, words that do not undergo morphological changes are distinguished. This includes, for example, borrowed nouns (coats, metro, etc.), which do not change either in cases or in numbers; borrowed adjectives such as beige, burgundy, etc.

Depending on the role of which members of the sentence this or that part of speech is used, as well as on what words it is combined with in the sentence, various syntactic functions of parts of speech are determined. For example, nouns in a sentence most often act as a subject and an object. Adjectives perform the function of definition. Verbs act primarily as a predicate.

The modern idea of ​​the parts of speech has been formed for a long time, one might say, throughout the development of the science of the grammatical structure of the Russian language. Beginning with " Russian grammar» M.

V. Lomonosov (first scientific description Russian language) and ending with academic grammars of 1970 and 1980, parts of speech are the object of linguistic description. To date, the nomenclature of parts of speech has been defined, which includes the following concepts: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, adverbs, category of state (predicatives), verb, participle, gerund, modal words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, link, interjection, onomatopoeia. However, the number of parts of speech in various works, including educational literature, not the same. This is explained by the fact that the syncretic discharges of lexemes and word forms mentioned above receive different interpretations in case of part-speech characteristics.

The idea of ​​parts of speech as classes derived from a set of features was fixed and became widely accepted after the works of V. V. Vinogradov.

V. V. Vinogradov, relying on previous experience and, first of all, on the ideas of A. A. Shakhmatov (Syntax of the Russian language)

and L. V. Shcherba (article “On parts of speech in the Russian language”) approved a comprehensive approach to the distribution of words into parts of speech, showed the need for a comprehensive analysis of a word with its part-of-speech characterization.

The system of parts of speech described by V. V. Vinogradov in the book "Russian Language" is taken as the basis in most modern morphological descriptions of the modern Russian language.

At the first stage of the classification of parts of speech, four semantic-grammatical types of words can be distinguished: independent parts of speech (or significant, full-meaning words), auxiliary parts of speech (which V. V. Vinogradov, following L. V. Shcherba, called particles, while using the word particle in another sense, namely, to designate a separate service part of speech), modal words and interjections, to which onomatopoeia adjoins.

Independent words 1) express concepts, 2) are morphemic (have inflection models and morphological ways formations), 3) are members of the sentence and form syntactic links, 4) independent words cannot, in principle, be given by closed lists.

Service words 1) do not express concepts. Their meaning is formed on syntactic basis, and not based on the nominative sign function. For example, the preposition with has the meaning of a spatial relationship if combined with R. p. (from the mountain), comparative value, if combined with V. p. parents); union to has the value of the target when attaching the target subordinate clause, and does not have this meaning if it attaches an explanatory clause (asked to come); 2) do not have morphological forms and are not formed by morphological methods;

3) they are not members of a sentence and do not form syntactic links, although they are used, like a morpheme, as a linguistic means of expressing syntactic relations; 4) official words can

be given in closed lists.

Modal words, according to the features indicated by the numbers 2, 3, 4, are similar to service parts of speech (V. V. Vinogradov noted the proximity of modal words to some modal particles), but they differ from service words in the nature of their lexical meaning. “Modal words,” wrote V. V. Vinogradov, “determine the point of view of the speaking subject on the relation of speech to reality or on the choice and functions of individual expressions in the composition of speech.” “In this regard, it can be noted that the peculiarity of semantics most modal words is that they are folded sentences

n V. V. Vinogradov. Russian language. 1972. S. 568. 21

modus character: in my opinion = I think, I suppose, I think, maybe = I admit, it seems = I suppose, etc.

The lexical meaning of modal words indicates that in the Russian language, on the basis of the syntactic function of introduction, special type lexical semantics. “Modal words lie, as it were, in a different grammatical and subjective-stylistic plane in comparison with all other elements of the utterance” (V. V. Vinogradov) 12.

Interjections and onomatopoeia form a special and very specific type of words, located on the periphery of the part-of-speech system of the language. They don't express concepts. Interjections are signs of emotions, and onomatopoeic words imitate, depict sounds. L. V. Shcherba, calling interjections “an obscure and vague category”, reduced their formal, i.e. categorical, sign to “complete syntactic isolation, the absence of any connections with previous and subsequent elements in the flow of speech” thirteen.

When defining the boundaries of the fourth semantic-grammatical class of words, it should be borne in mind that V. V. Vinogradov uses the term interjection broadly, denoting different (peripheral) groups of words, united by the fact that they do not have 1) conceptual semantics, 2) a certain grammatical formality.

Further division of parts of speech is carried out within the distinguished four types and in each type is carried out on different grounds.

Modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia are divided into groups only by lexical meaning.

More on the topic § 12. The system of parts of speech of the modern Russian language:

1. 8. The system of parts of speech of the modern Russian language (significant and auxiliary, nominal and verbal parts of speech, their grammatical categories). Interjection as a special group of words.
2. 12. Word as an element of a part of speech (morphological unit). morphological category. Paradigm. The system of parts of speech of the modern Russian language.

§ 7. The system of parts of speech and particles of speech in Russian

Of the general structural-semantic types of words in the Russian language, grammatical differences between different categories of words in the system of parts of speech stand out most sharply and definitely. The division of parts of speech into main grammatical categories is due to:

1) differences in those syntactic functions that different categories of words perform in connected speech, in the structure of a sentence;

2) differences in the morphological structure of words and word forms;

3) differences in the real (lexical) meanings of words;

4) differences in the way of reflecting reality;

5) differences in the nature of those correlative and subordinate grammatical categories that are associated with one or another part of speech.

One should not think that parts of speech are the same in quantity and quality in all languages ​​of the world. The system of parts of speech reflects the stage of development of a given language, its grammatical structure. When highlighting the main parts of speech, it is necessary to remember the testament of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay:

"It is highly inappropriate to measure the structure of a language in known time categories of some previous or subsequent time.<...>see in known language without any further roundabouts, the category of another language is unscientific; science must not impose on an object categories alien to it, and must seek in it only that which lives in it, determining its structure and composition" (100). "One should take the object of study as it is, without imposing on it categories alien to it."

In traditional Russian grammar, reflecting the influence of ancient and Western European grammars, at first there were eight, then nine, but now - with the inclusion of particles - ten parts of speech are usually distinguished:

• 1) noun;
• 2) adjective;
• 3) numeral;
• 4) pronoun;
• 5) verb;
• 6) adverb;
• 7) pretext;
• 8) union;
• 9) particles;
• 10) interjections.

In addition, participles and participles are either considered as part of the verb forms, or they belong to mixed, transitional parts of speech, or they are considered special parts of speech (in this case, the number of parts of speech increases to twelve).

The number of parts of speech in the teachings of some linguists increases even more. Yes, acad. A. A. Shakhmatov introduced a prefix (for example, pre-, nai-, etc.) and a bunch into the circle of parts of speech. He had fourteen parts of speech. If this list is supplemented by various other contenders for the role of parts of speech, put forward in recent times(for example, the category of the state, recognized in the words can, cannot, must, sorry, etc., question words and particles (101), separating particles, like and - and, neither - neither, or - or, relative words, etc.), then the number of parts of speech in Russian will exceed twenty.

But with the same ease with which the number of parts of speech grows in the grammatical theories of some linguists, it decreases in the concepts of others.

Many grammarians (for example, Potebnya, Fortunatov, Peshkovsky) denied that numerals and pronouns have grammatical features special parts of speech, indicating that numerals and pronouns in their syntactic features close to those grammatical categories like nouns, adjectives and adverbs. With this point of view, the number of basic, independent parts of speech is already reduced by two and reduced to eight.

However, among these eight parts of speech there are also doubtful, incomplete ones. The easiest way to challenge the right to be called a part of speech is with interjections. “No matter how great the meaning of interjection in speech, there is something in it that separates it from other parts of speech, it is a phenomenon of a different order .... It has nothing to do with morphology. It is a special form of speech - affective, emotional speech, or sometimes active, active speech; in any case, it remains outside the structure of intellectual speech" (102).

In addition to interjections, service words easily fall out of the group of parts of speech. "Many of the 'parts of speech' of our grammars are nothing but morphemes (i.e., expressers of purely grammatical relations)," writes J. Vandries. "Such are the particles called prepositions and conjunctions" (103).

Researchers (for example, Prof. Kudryavsky), who adhered to Potebnya's view of the complete semantic parallelism of parts of speech and sentence members, always denied the title of parts of speech to service, connective words, i.e., preposition, conjunction and particle. For such researchers, the number of parts of speech is limited to four main ones: noun, adjective, verb and adverb. If linguistic skepticism extends further, then the right of adverbs to be called an independent part of speech is questioned. After all, some categories of adverbs are in close connection with adjectives (cf. the inclusion of qualitative adverbs in -o into the system of adjectives by Prof. Kurilovich), others with nouns, and still others do not have pronounced morphological features of a special category.

At the heart of the once accepted by the followers of Acad. Fortunatov's grammatical division of words according to inflection differences into:

• 1) case (fun);
• 2) generic (cheerful, th, th, merry, -a, -o, served, -a, -o);
• 3) personal (having fun, having fun, etc.)

lay just such a distrustful attitude towards the "grammaticality" of the dialect.

Thus, only three parts of speech will survive: the noun, the adjective and the verb. But even in the ancient grammatical tradition, nouns and adjectives were brought under the same category of the name. And in modern languages, they often change roles. “There is no clear grammatical boundary between them; they can be combined into one category - the category of the name,” says J. Vandries and concludes: “Continuing this selection, we come to the fact that there are only two parts of speech: the verb and the name. all other parts of speech" (104).

"Names and verbs are living elements of language, as opposed to its grammatical tools" (105) (like prepositions, conjunctions, etc.).

Of the Russian grammarians, no one has yet reached such a limitation of parts of speech, but in the Fortunatov school the opinion was expressed that the verb is not correlated with nouns and adjectives, and that morphology can be managed without the category of the verb. Prof. M. N. Peterson in his early works on Russian grammar, in the presentation of inflection, did without the doctrine of the verb as a special grammatical class (106). Only in his new Lectures on Modern Russian literary language"(1941) he was forced to recognize the verb as a category, "denoting a sign extended in time."

Such are the fluctuations in the doctrine of the parts of speech. Between different views linguists on this issue - "distance huge size". Therefore, many authors of grammars seem to have completely compromised the old doctrine of parts of speech. Meanwhile, one has to resort to some kind of classification system of words when presenting the grammar of any language. Therefore, in grammars it is not uncommon to make statements like the following: "The doctrine of parts of speech belongs least developed parts of grammar. Traditional interpretation parts of speech are considered modern linguistics unsatisfactory. However, the absence of any established scientifically substantiated new points of view on this issue forces us to keep within the framework of tradition in this respect" (107).

Isolation of the main structural-semantic types of words helps to bring some clarity to the doctrine of parts of speech. Neither modal words, nor interjections, nor connective words or particles of speech belong to parts of speech. The range of parts of speech is limited by the limits of words that can perform a nominative function or be demonstrative equivalents of names.

Among these words, "a person recognizes one word as an adjective, another as a verb, not coping with the definitions of parts of speech, but in the same way, in essence, in which he recognizes a cow or a cat in this or that animal" (108).

Parts of speech are primarily divided into two large series of words, differing from one another in the degree of nominative independence, systems of grammatical forms, and the nature of syntactic use.

In one series are the categories of names, the category of pronouns and the category of the verb, in the other - the category of adverbs. In modern Russian, adverbs are correlated with the main categories of names and verbs. But the connection of adverbs with names is closer than with the forms of verb words. In modern Russian there is an incessant movement nominal forms into the adverb system.

Changes in the structure of the Russian language associated with the history of the link (the so-called "auxiliary" verb) led to the formation of a special part of speech - the category of state. This part of speech arose on the basis of the grammatical transformation of a number of forms, which began to be used exclusively or mainly as a linking predicate. Conditions began to be brought under this category " predicative adverbs"(such as it is possible, ashamed, ashamed and others like that), torn off from the category of adjectives short forms(like glad, much), some forms of nouns that have undergone rethinking (for example: it’s impossible, it’s time, etc.).

Since the copula retained some of the formal properties of the verb word, the development of the category of state was noticeably affected by the influence of the category of the verb.

As for the category of names, the Russian language clearly indicates the differences between nouns and adjectives. From these categories in the history of the Russian language (especially from the XII - XIII centuries) the category quantitative words- category of the numeral. On the contrary, the ancient rich class of demonstrative words, pronouns in the history of the Russian language has undergone disintegration, decomposition. Most of pronominal words merged with the categories of adjectives and adverbs or turned into particles of speech, into grammatical means language. In system modern language only relics of pronouns as a special part of speech (subject-personal pronouns) have survived. Thus, the system of seven main parts of speech characteristic of the modern Russian language can be represented in the following scheme:

I. Names: 1) noun, 2) adjective and 3) numeral.

II. 4) Pronoun (in a state of decomposition).

III. 5) Verb.

IV. 6) Adverb.

The system of parts of speech in the sentence structure is combined with the system of particles of speech:

1) Particles in the proper sense.

2) Particles-bundles.

3) Prepositions.

Modal words adjoin the particles of speech on one side, forming a special structural-semantic type of words.

Prof. A. Belich (109) thinks that modal words should be combined with particles, prepositions, conjunctions in the category of relational (that is, expressing relations) words-particles. Indeed, among modal words there is large group particles with various modal values. However, these modal particles do not exhaust and do not define the grammatical nature of all modal words in general. Modal words interact both with particles of speech and with different categories of parts of speech. But the syntactic functions and semantic structure of most modal words are of a different kind than parts of speech and particles of speech. In a living language, as Prof. A. Belich, no ideal system with monotonous, sharp and deep edges between different types words. Grammatical facts move and move from one category to another, often different parties adjacent to different categories. The same complex semantic interactions observed in the circle of modal words.

The grammatical-semantic differentiation within interjections is also quite diverse, as the following presentation will show.

The task of the subsequent presentation is to understand the grammatical nature of the main types of words in the modern Russian language, to describe the system of parts of speech with the inherent in each of them. grammatical forms and categories, reveal the functions of speech particles, outline the main semantic categories within the categories of modal words and interjections.