Morphology as a branch of grammar studies grammatical forms, grammatical categories. There is nothing in grammar that is not expressed in one way or another. In other words, what is in the grammar of a given language should be known to all native speakers, should be accessible to perception.

grammatical meaning – generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic constructions, which finds its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, tense of the verb, etc.

The exponent of grammatical meaning is a grammatical indicator. A grammatical indicator is a means of expressing grammatical meaning explicitly. For example, in the word form house a affix -a and stress on non-are an indicator plural.

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning, is superimposed on it, sometimes the grammatical meaning is limited in its manifestation by certain lexical groups words. Lexical meanings are expressed by significant words, formative stems, root morphemes. Grammatical meanings are expressed by affixal morphemes, functional words, meaningful alternations and other means.

Vocabulary and grammar – two closely related and consistent components of the structure of the language. Their consistency is determined by the commonality of their basic functions. Grammatical and lexical meanings are the two main kinds of linguistic meanings. These are some kind of poles in the semantic space of the language. Numerous discussions of the grounds for distinguishing between grammatical and non-grammatical meanings lead to the conclusion that there are no clear boundaries between these types of linguistic meanings.

According to Yu.D. Apresyan, the meaning is called grammatical if it is necessarily expressed with the words of a certain class, and the words of this class are quite numerous and frequent. What is interesting for a linguist are those meanings that are grammatical in at least some languages.

The difference between lexical and grammatical meanings is related to the difference in the storage of these semantic components in language memory: vocabulary units are stored as ready-to-use, automatically reproduced two-way entities. There are no ready-made word forms in memory. They are specially built in accordance with some communicative task.

Drawing a line between vocabulary and grammar is connected with the solution of the question of what information should be recorded in the dictionary, and what - in the rules for the functioning of units.

Many modern grammatical concepts consider the most important sign grammatical meanings property of "obligation", "forcedness". This criterion means forced expression, the impossibility of leaving unexpressed one or the other of the opposing meanings of the category. For example, you cannot use a noun in Russian without expressing either the singular or the plural in meaning.

Obligatory (obligatory) grammatical meaning is understood as the appearance of one of a number of homogeneous meanings in any utterance, independent of the goals and needs of the message. For example, in a sentence My sister arrived yesterday grammatical meaning of the past tense of the verb arrived redundant, since the indication of time is contained in the adverb yesterday, but the verb come can not be used without specifying the time. Meaning female in verb arrived also redundant, but according to the rules of the Russian language, we must express the meaning of gender in the past tense of the verb.

characteristic feature grammatical meaning also recognizes the standard, regularity of the way of expression. In most cases, meanings traditionally referred to as grammatical ones are indeed directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means of expression.

If this criterion is strictly adhered to, then semantic differences that are not directly expressed may turn out to be uninteresting for grammar and be deduced from linguistic consideration. Meanwhile, studies have shown that, along with "explicit" grammar, there is also a "hidden" grammar, the categories of which are of direct linguistic interest.

The distinction between vocabulary and grammar is not self-evident. For example, there is a discrepancy between the systems of grammatical categories in different languages. What is expressed grammatically in some languages ​​may be expressed lexically in others, and vice versa. Yes, in Korean there are special internal and external moods of the verb, conveying, respectively, the meaning of the presence or absence of the speaker at the time of the described event. In most other languages, this meaning is expressed lexically.

There is a greater abstractness of grammatical meanings and the fact that grammatical meanings form a clearer system of oppositions compared to the lexical system. However, some areas lexical system fairly well structured.

To establish the grammaticality of morphemes, a formal approach is used, a formal distinction is established between significant and auxiliary morphemes. At formal approach The following procedure is usually used to distinguish between auxiliary and significant morphemes. Service morphemes are recognized as those whose environment is easily replaced. The service morphemes themselves can only be replaced by morphemes from a quantitatively and qualitatively strictly limited list. For example, a morpheme hand- in the word hand, which is the environment for the morpheme - a, can be replaced by any of the virtually unlimited list:

legs-

head- a

wall-

waves-

Possible replacements for - a make up a limited list:

wall-e

and a number of others.

Service morphemes cater to large "open" classes of morphemes and are used regularly in their respective environments. When wording language rules the use of service morphemes is stipulated exactly, specifically.

4.5. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning

Each grammatical meaning in the language receives a special means of expression - a grammatical indicator (formal indicator).

Grammatical indicators can be combined into types, which can be conditionally called grammatical ways, ways of expressing grammatical meaning. The language has a certain predisposition to follow patterns (models) in the field of grammatical formation. The simplest, most economical way of expressing grammatical meaning, according to Sapir, is the juxtaposition of two or more words in a certain sequence without any modification, the addition of stems: tipewriter.

The main grammatical methods include: affixation, function words, suppletivism, reduplication, alternation (internal inflection), word order, stress, intonation.

The grammatical way of affixing is to use affixes to express grammatical meaning: books; read-l-and. Word forms formed with the help of affixes are synthetic. In them, the lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed within the same word form.

By position relative to the root, they distinguish the following types affixes: prefixes, postfixes, infixes, interfixes, circumfixes.

There are two ways of attaching affixes - fusional and agglutinative. There are inflectional and agglutinative affixes.

Grammatical way of function words h It consists in the use of function words to express grammatical meaning: I will read, I would read. Functional words include prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, article particles, etc. Auxiliary verbs take on the role of indicators of grammatical meanings, losing their lexical meaning. The use of functional words to express grammatical meaning leads to the emergence of analytical word forms in which lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed separately, in contrast to synthetic word forms. The analytical word form is included in the corresponding grammatical paradigm of forms significant word, along with synthetic word forms. I will read– component of the tense paradigm of the verb read.

The grammatical way is suppletivism. Suppletivism is understood as the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: me - me; I go - walked, man - people; good - better; good - better; go - went; gut - besser. Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. Their lexical meaning is the same, and the exponential difference serves to express the grammatical meaning.

The grammatical method of reduplication (repetition) consists in the complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang-" Human ”, orang-orange –"people". In Russian, repetition is used not as a grammatical tool, but as a means of modifying the meaning: walk-walk; kind kind.

The grammatical method - alternation (internal inflection) is the use of a change in the sound composition of the root to express grammatical meaning: avoid - avoid; collect - collect; dik - game; dry - dry; foot - feet; sing-sang; hatte-hätte.

Internal inflection is prominent in Semitic languages, where roots are made up of consonants, and grammatical meanings are expressed by various vowels that are inserted inside the root. For example, in Arabic root KTB denotes the idea of ​​"writing": wrote - KataBa, write - UKTUB.

Word order is used as a grammatical method. This method is widely used in those languages ​​where words do not change morphologically. For example, in English language The mother loves her son: The son loves his mother; school grammar - grammar school. In Russian, such cases are rare: deaf scientists – scientists are deaf; being determines consciousness - consciousness defines being; mother loves daughter, daughter loves mother.

The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmented, i.e. can be superimposed on a segment chain. Among the supersegmental grammatical modes are stress and intonation. In polytonic languages, the change in tone in a syllable is used as an expression of grammatical meaning.

In Russian, stress is used as an indicator of grammatical meaning in the case of its movement in a word: hands - hands; pour out - pour out, narrowly - narrowly.

An indicator of grammatical meaning can also be the presence / absence of stress. So, in Russian, drums what, how, when, who - pronouns, and unstressed – unions: I have seen, as she passed; I saw her go.

Intonation mainly serves to express syntactic meaning.

Inflection is the formation of its paradigm for each word, i.e. all its word forms and all its analytical forms. During inflection, the identity of the word (lexeme) is not violated (we are dealing with the same word in different grammatical forms).

Only multi-form (changeable) words have a formative structure ( gardens, did etc.). Uniform (unchangeable) words ( here now etc.) are not considered from this point of view. A polyform word is a class of word forms, a paradigm. A paradigm can be big or small. The big paradigm (macroparadigm) covers, for example, all categorical changes of Russian nouns. The small paradigm (microparadigm) includes, for example, the case paradigm of nouns.

Comparison of word forms included in one paradigm allows us to divide them into two structural components:

The basis, which remains in principle invariant in the formation of grammatical forms of one lexeme,

Formator (formative, formal indicator), which is the exponent of the corresponding grammatical meaning (gramme or set of grammes).

In inflectional languages, the formatter is usually the exponent of several grammes at the same time (cumulatively). Yes, in the form gardens foundation stands out garden- and formatter - s, an indicator of a plural gramme and at the same time a gramme of the nominative case.

Formators can be multicomponent: Ishall have been work ing.

We can talk about the paradigm of a single concrete word and the paradigm of a class of words. paradigm single word represent as a record of all word forms given word:

Them. pad. table-

Genus. pad. table-a etc.

In the word class paradigm table, only formatters are fixed:

Them. pad. –

Genus. pad. - a etc.

One of the word forms of the paradigm is considered as the original (main). The shaping of a word is a process of constructing morphological transformations (transformations) from the original word form of indirect word forms according to certain rules.

Significant alternations of phonemes significantly complicate the picture of formation.

4.6. Grammar categories

Grammar category (GC) – a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. The CC is characterized by a categorical feature, for example, 'generalized meaning of tense', 'meaning of a person', etc. Such a meaning combines the meanings of individual grammatical forms included in this category, for example, 'meaning of the present tense', 'meaning of the past tense', etc. d.

The CC is based on one or another conceptual category. In the minds of people there are general concepts type: time, number, etc. If such general concepts receive a regular means of expression in a given language, they become grammatical categories. Some conceptual categories do not receive a regular formal expression in the language. For example, the opposition of a certain object / an indefinite object in Russian has not received a regular formal expression, although it is distinguished by all speakers, and if necessary, the speaker chooses some means to express it: this one, just this one, any, any etc. Such general concepts are called conceptual categories.

In developing the concept of conceptual categories, the works of O. Jespersen, who introduced the term “conceptual category”, the works of I.I. Meshchaninova, S.D. Katsnelson and others. Conceptual categories are sometimes called philosophical, logical (in rational grammars), psychological (G. Paul), ontological, extralinguistic, cognitive, conceptual, semantic, mental, speech-thinking.

A necessary feature of the GC is the regular expression of certain exhibitors. Grammatical meanings opposed within a grammatical category receive regular, standard ways expressions, formal indicators, formatives, formatters. If in a given language there are no standard, regular indicators of any generalized meaning, then there is no grammatical category.

The grammatical meaning (content plan) and the formal indicator of this meaning (expression plan) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. A grammeme is a component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning is a specific concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.

GC – it is a system of grammes opposed to each other. In the structure of the grammatical category, the grammeme is one of the series of grammatical forms opposed to each other that constitute the grammatical category. Thus, the grammatical category of case in Russian includes six grams, in German - four.

A gramme can have multiple meanings. So, the gramme of the plural of nouns in Russian has the following meanings:

- 'a bunch of': tables, trees;

- ‘varieties’: oils, wines;

- ‘a large number of’: snow, sand;

Does not express the meaning of plurality: Athens.

grammeme genitive the name of a noun in Russian combines the meanings:

- ‘accessories' father's house;

- ‘parts of a whole’: chair leg;

- ‘object’: book reading;

- 'content': a glass of milk;

- ‘quantities’: enough worries;

Defining value: business man.

Identification of the meaning of a gramme is carried out by the transformation method: father's house → father's house(at the word form father membership value is revealed) ; author's speech → author's speech(at the word form author the meaning of the subject is revealed), etc.

Grammatical categories are divided into form-building (examples – above) and classification. Members of classification categories are represented by different words, for example, the category of gender of nouns in Russian table - husband. genus, desk female genus, window - avg. genus. Classification categories are inherent in a given word and refer it to a particular class. They appear indirectly, through the words associated with the given word in the context. So, the gender of the noun cat manifests itself in the agreement of this word with the adjective: black cat.

Any grammatical category can be reduced to a system of binary oppositions. For example, in the category of time, the following oppositions can be distinguished: past: not past (present, future); present: not present (past, future).

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes, and grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, the following criteria should be taken into account:

The presence / absence of the corresponding grammatical category;

The number of grammes of the grammatical category;

Ways of expressing the grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;

The digits of the words with which the given grammatical category is associated.

From the grammatical category, it is necessary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words - subclasses of words within a certain part of speech. Lexico-grammatical categories of words, for example, collective nouns, relative adjectives etc., have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain morphological meanings.

The grammatical category is a historical concept. Grammatical categories in one language are different in different historical periods. So, in the Russian language, the gramme of the dual number, the vocative case, disappeared, and the category of aspect appeared.

The introduction of the term (and concept) “hidden” grammatical category (covert), as opposed to the “explicit”, or open, category (overt), into linguistic use is associated with the name of B. Whorf. An explicit category finds expression in every sentence containing a member of that category. A hidden category is expressed only in some cases and not in all sentences in which a member of this category is presented.

Latent categories are semantic and syntactic signs words or phrases that do not find an explicit (explicit) expression, but are essential for the construction and understanding of the statement. Hidden categories can affect the compatibility of a given word with other words in a sentence.

Hidden categories in Russian include, for example, such categories as certainty/uncertainty, controllability/uncontrollability, static/dynamic, personality/impersonality, etc.

Hidden categories are implied categorical features that do not have independent expression in the language [Katsnelson 1972], i.e. semantic features that do not find explicit grammatical expression. The meaningful features that constitute the hidden categories are, as it were, "hidden" in the semantic potential of grammatical categories, lexical meanings, and syntactic structures. They are implicit, which is not the same as the absence of their expression. They are expressed one way or another, otherwise they could not be established. Hidden categories are not found in the "ether of pure spirit" [Katsnelson 1972], but find some kind of formal expression. So, the hidden category of animateness/inanimateness is manifested only in the accusative plural I see dots; I see daughters.

A hidden category in Russian is the category of controllability/uncontrollability. Opposition on this basis does not receive an explicit expression in predicates in Russian, but predicates show this feature in the appropriate contexts: predicates with the meaning of controllability [+ control.]: protect, spit etc. are not used in constructions like * Don't defend your diploma, * Don't spit in the well(negative constructions with a perfective imperative). Predicates with uncontrollable value [-control.]: fly, fall etc. a) are not combined with the circumstance of the goal: * The arrow flies to hit the apple; b) in constructions with dative type * The arrow did not fly.

The question of the presence of a hidden category is not always solved unambiguously. Hidden Meanings revealed indirectly.

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Agglutination and Fusion

Agglutinative languages	Fusion languages
Turkic, Finno-Ugric languages	European languages
They don't have attachments. The word starts with a root. The root is autonomous, it can act independently.	There are attachments. The root is usually not autonomous and is followed by affixes.
The phonemic composition (sound) does not change	The phonemic composition may change
Affixes are unambiguous and standard (plural affix, case ...)	Affixes are ambiguous and non-standard (ending A in the words: elephant, woman - means different things (case, number))
The morpheme boundary is clearly visible (mechanical attachment of affixes to each other)	Close connection of affixes, morphemic border is poorly perceptible

2 effects of fusion:

Simplification (simplification is a gradual change in the language: the merging of several morphemes into one)

Re-decomposition of the stems (transition of a part of the morpheme to another morpheme, hence the pronunciation may change. Previously, “terrae” - E was the ending and was read terrae, then AE was combined into one ending and it began to be read E).

View groups and subgroups of languages. Especially in Shaikevich's textbook

Classification by origin and classification by typology.

Name is a verb.

They have grammatical meanings (for a name: gender, number, case ... for a verb - time, number, person, appearance, inclination .... They can be in different languages different amount, or maybe not at all). All these grammatical meanings have a formal expression.

1. Affixation - (everything that is not a root is an affix). The most common affix is ​​inflection (ending). (Wall - walls, dog - dogs). In Russian, affixation is the main way.

2. Internal inflection - alternation of vowels and consonants in the root, expressing grammatical meaning (to sing - sang - sung)

3. Repeat (reduplication) - amplification lexical meaning matches the grammatical meaning, then it's a way. The expression of a number (For example, in the Malay language orang is a person, orang- orang is people), the type of verb (in African fen is to gnaw, fen-fen is to gnaw; shows the futility of the action: walked-walked = never found - already like perfect view), the superlative degree of the adjective (kind-kind = kindest).

4. Addition - makes the word long and complex in structure, expressing grammatical and lexical meaning. (Sineglazka - the one with blue eyes, attributive meaning (quality, property, adjective + noun), cunning. Objective meaning (verb + noun) - cannibal, fly agaric, icebreaker. Verb + adverb loudspeaker). Other languages ​​may have more ways addition (in Sanskrit: place + noun, number + noun ....). there may be an addition not of two, but of several parts.

5. Stress - accentuation of one syllable against the background of others. The stress can be power, longitudinal, musical (tonal) - Chinese. In Russian, it is longitude-force. If the stress is motionless, fixed (for example, always on the last syllable - French), then it does not express grammatical meaning. In Russian, with the help of stress, case and number are expressed (hands - hands, accept - accept), the type of the verb (pour - pour).

6. Suppletivism - forms formed from different bases that have nothing in common are combined into one paradigm. Type of verb (take - take), number (person - people), indirect case of personal pronouns (I - me, me ...), person, number and tense of auxiliary verbs (to be - am, is, are).

All these 6 ways – synthetic, because they are based on synthesis, that is, they combine both lexical and grammatical meaning in one word. Russian - synthetic, English - analytical. Other 3 ways - analytical ways:

7. Service words.

The article is a functional word for a name. Indicates a noun (to play - the play) expresses different grammatical categories (for example, certainty - indefiniteness e - ze in English), indicates number, gender, case (in German).

Preposition - performs a semantic-syntactic function (expresses certain value, for example, spatial - a cat in a box, a cat on the roof.) clarifies, differentiates the meaning.

I write a letter to my mother with a pen - I write the letter to my mum by the pen.

In English, affixation is gone, but prepositions are very developed.

· Particles. Subjective shades, modal (confidence, uncertainty - they say, de)

Auxiliary verbs (in Russian - to be, to have)

· comparative(kind - more / kindest)

8. Word order. Subject-object relationship (mother loves daughter - the subject usually comes first, also in English). Attributive syntagma (adj + noun) (garden flower - a garden flower, if vice versa - a flower garden).

9. Intonation. Subjective assessment, interrogative sentence.

On the exam, you need to compare Russian and other languages ​​being studied. Prove that Russian is synthetic and find evidence that it also has analytical methods.

Synthesism coefficient - in one text in different languages, the number of morphemes and words is calculated. Morpheme/word = coefficient. If the coefficient is less than 2, then the language is analytic. The larger the coefficient, the more synthetic the language, if more than 2, then the language is synthetic.

Over time Indo-European languages become analytic.

The lexical meaning of a word is accompanied by its grammatical meaning. The differences between these two types of values ​​are:

• 1. Grammatical meanings are abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, therefore it characterizes only a certain word. Thus, the lexical meaning of the word table"a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal plate on supports, legs" is the semantic property of this particular word.
• 2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the basis of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal ones).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, a noun teacher in a sentence And that one, Who do I consider a teacher?, like a shadow passed...(Ahm.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, male, singular, instrumental. The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called part-verbal (or general categorical); such are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, processivity in a verb, and so on. The part-of-speech meaning of the word is supplemented and specified by private (or private-categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animateness/inanimateness, gender, number and case.

Formal grammatical means

Let us characterize two types of formal grammatical means paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The morphological (inflectional) paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) of a given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called word change. Some words have no inflection: they always appear in the same form (such, for example, are the service words r /, on, only). Such words have zero paradigm. But for most words in the Russian language, the paradigm is not zero. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school formed by words: school, schools, school, school, school, (about) school; schools, schools, schools, schools, (about) schools.

There are two types of word forms: synthetic (simple) and analytical (compound). Synthetic word forms consist of the basis of the word and inflectional affixes - endings,

inflectional suffixes and postfixes. For example: house-o (null ending), school; quick-eysh-th(inflective superlative suffix and ending), read-l-and(inflective verb suffix and ending), running(inflective participle suffix and ending). In one synthetic word form there can be from one to three inflectional affixes; for example, in the verb form check-l "-and-s (The essays were checked by two examiners) grammatical meanings are expressed by the inflectional suffix of the past tense ending -and and inflectional postfix passive voice -ss.

Participate in the formation of analytical word forms auxiliary words, which play the same role as inflectional affixes in the structure of synthetic word forms. For example, by adding the future tense of the auxiliary verb be to the infinitive of an imperfective verb ( read, run away etc.) an analytical form of the future tense is formed (I will read, let's run); adding an auxiliary word to the past tense of the verb would form is formed subjunctive mood (I would read, would run).

Sometimes in the paradigm of a word there are both synthetic and analytical word forms (cf.: strongest and the strongest; warmer and warmer). In paradigms of nouns, numerals and pronouns - only synthetic word forms; adjectives, verbs, adverbs and impersonal predicative words are characterized by both synthetic and analytical word forms.

Inflection has always been the main object morphological analysis, because endings and inflectional suffixes in the composition of synthetic word forms, auxiliary words in the composition of analytical word forms are effective means of expressing grammatical meanings. So, thanks to the opposition of endings in word forms student - students, magazine - magazines the values ​​of the number are expressed; in opposition to word forms I decide - I decide - I will decide temporary values ​​are expressed.

Inflectional affixes of all the above types and auxiliary words belong to the paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of an inflectional paradigm of a word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, in some words there are additional, often accompanying the main means of expressing grammatical meaning:

• 1) alternation (or alternation) of phonemes in the stem [run - run; sleep - sleep("fluent" vowel)];
• 2) accumulation, truncation or alternation of basic suffixes in the stem [brother - brothers ("brother-a); peasant - peasants?; give - I let you dance - I dance (dance-u "-u)]
• 3) suppletivism - alternation of roots (I'm walking - walking; man - people);
• 4) change the place of stress (tree - trees; was - were).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also syntagmatically, i.e. in a phrase. For example, in phrases A new book , new books the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the ending of the noun, but also by the ending of the adjective that agrees with it. Here paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in those cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting this meaning is the grammatical syntagmatics (compatibility) of the word. For example, if the noun does not have outwardly different endings, i.e. is "indeclinable" (like coat, CHP), the grammatical meaning of a number can only be expressed "outside" the noun itself, in consonant forms of the adjective (new / new coats, powerful / powerful CHP). These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical doctrine of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

triadic structure language - language, speech, speech activity - is also reflected in the units of grammar, where the grammatical category is a unit of language, the grammatical meaning is a unit of speech, and the grammatical form is a unit speech activity. From a philosophical point of view, the grammatical category is general, the grammatical meaning is particular, separate, and the grammatical form is singular, representing the general and the separate in a formalized individual form. From a mathematical point of view, a grammatical category is a set, a grammatical meaning is a subset of this set, and a grammatical form is a concrete representation of a set and a subset.

For example, a noun book has grammatical categories of gender, number and case, which are realized in a separate - grammatical meanings of the feminine, singular, nominative case, presented in a singular - word form book. In fact, the grammatical form of expression of the noted grammatical categories and meanings in this case is only inflection -a, which, however, is not used independently in speech, but only together with the stem of the word. Hence, in fact, the close connection between the grammatical and the lexical in the word follows. The grammatical form cannot be torn off from the word form as a whole, since the same inflection -a in a different word form, it can already express other grammatical meanings, for example, the meaning of the plural in a noun at home or the meaning of the imperfect aspect in the participle screaming.

grammar category. The concept of a category (from the Greek kategoria- statement; sign) goes back to Aristotle. He also singled out ten universal signs in the surrounding world as categories: essence, quantity, quality, attitude, place, time, position, state, action and suffering. In modern science, category in the most general sense, they usually understand a certain universal feature inherent in a vast collection of objects or phenomena. Gram-

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The concept of a grammatical category is correlative with such concepts as grammatical meaning and grammatical form. The grammatical category acts as a generalization of a whole series (necessarily at least two) of grammatical meanings correlative and opposed to each other, which find their expression in certain grammatical forms. There could not be one or another grammatical category if there were no correlative grammatical meanings embodied in grammatical form. In this system of relations, a categorical attribute is decisive, for example, the generalized meaning of gender, number, case, tense, person, etc. Yes, Russian words window, wall, house, like any nouns, they have the category of gender, number and case. These categories are revealed in these words through grammatical meanings and grammatical forms: in the word window through the neuter, singular, nominative and accusative cases (grammatical form - inflection -o); in the word wall through the feminine, singular, nominative case (grammatical form - inflection -a); in the word house through the masculine gender, singular, nominative and accusative cases (grammatical form - zero inflection).

The grammatical category thus acts as a system of opposing grammatical meanings that defines the division of a vast set of word forms into non-overlapping classes. So, in Russian, the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural form the category of number, the grammatical meanings of six cases - the category of case, the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter genders - the category of gender, etc. In addition to the noted categories, the Russian language also distinguishes grammatical categories of aspect, voice, mood, person, tense, and others. For a grammatical category, the opposition of grammatical meanings is important: if such semantic oppositions do not exist, then the category is not formed in the language. So, in English, Turkish and

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in a number of other languages ​​there is no opposition of nouns by gender, so the category of gender is absent in these languages.

The originality of the languages ​​of the world is clearly manifested in grammatical categories. Thus, the category of gender familiar to East Slavic languages ​​is unknown to entire families of languages ​​- Turkic, Finno-Ugric, etc. In Chinese there is no grammatical category of number, in Japanese there are no grammatical categories of number, person and gender. In Russian, the gender category of nouns is expressed only in the singular; in the plural, gender differences are neutralized, while in Lithuanian, nouns retain gender differences in the plural.

One or another grammatical category in different languages ​​can have a different volume, that is, the number of opposed grammatical meanings. For example, the category of gender in many languages ​​of the Indo-European family has only two grammatical meanings, and not three, as in Russian: masculine and feminine, or neuter and common gender. In Spanish, eight verb tenses are distinguished - five past, one present and two future tenses, while in modern Russian there are only three tenses: present, past and future. In English, there are only two cases - the common case and the possessive case, in German four cases are distinguished, in Russian - six cases, in Czech - seven, in Hungarian - 20, in Tabasaran (Dagestan) - 52 cases.

It is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories. The lexico-grammatical categories of words include subclasses of words that have a common semantic feature within one part of speech. For example, nouns are divided into collective, material, concrete, abstract, adjectives - into qualitative and relative, verbs - into personal and impersonal, etc.

The concept of a grammatical category has been developed mainly on the basis of morphological material, the question of syntactic categories has been developed to a lesser extent.

grammatical meaning. In "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" grammatical meaning determined

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as a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in the language. The system of grammatical meanings is formed on the basis of paradigmatic relations of words and word forms and on the basis of syntagmatic relations linking words and word forms in a phrase or sentence. On the basis of paradigmatic relations, general grammatical meanings of words as parts of speech, as well as grammatical meanings within morphological categories, are distinguished. For example, the meanings of objectivity for nouns, action for verbs, attribute for adjectives are their categorical part-of-speech meanings. Within the category of species, the meanings of the perfect and imperfect species, within the category of gender - the meanings of masculine, neuter and feminine gender, as well as other grammatical meanings within other morphological categories. A variety of syntagmatic relations of words and word forms as components of phrases and sentences give grounds to single out sentence members, as well as various types of phrases and sentences.

To determine the specifics of the grammatical meaning, it is usually contrasted with the lexical meaning. There are a number of properties that distinguish grammatical meanings from lexical ones.

The first difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning is the degree of coverage of lexical material. The grammatical meaning is always characteristic of a large group of words, and not of one word, like a lexical meaning. The grammatical meaning combines groups of words into certain grammatical classes, for example, the grammatical meaning of objectivity combines a significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language into the grammatical class of a noun, the grammatical meaning of an action combines another part of the vocabulary into the class of a verb, etc. Within classes, grammatical meanings group vocabulary into subclasses, such as masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns, singular and plural, perfective and imperfective verbs, and so on.

The second difference between the grammatical meaning and the lexical one is that it acts in relation to the lexical one as additional, concomitant. Different grammatical

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meanings can be expressed in the same word; with the help of various formal indicators, changing the appearance of the word, but not changing its lexical meaning (water, water, water *, water, water; carry, carry, carry, carry, carry, carry etc.). At the same time, grammatical meanings differ in the regularity of their expression, that is, they have the same set of formal indicators with the help of which they are realized in different words (for example, the ending -s, -and in the genitive singular for feminine nouns). Grammar; meanings are obligatory in a word; without them, it cannot become a word form and a component of a phrase and sentence.

The third difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning is the nature of generalization and abstraction. If the lexical meaning is associated primarily with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena, then the grammatical one arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words, although grammatical abstraction is also general properties and signs of things and phenomena. So, division in Russian and Belarusian languages verb tense into the past, present and future corresponds to the fact that everything in world exists for a person either in the past, or in the present, or in the future. The grammatical division of words into nouns, adjectives and verbs generally corresponds to those objects, their features and actions that human consciousness distinguishes in the surrounding world. But if lexical meanings distinguish individual objects and phenomena (birch - rowan-maple - ash, run - think - write-read, quiet-red - light - noisy etc.), then grammatical meanings distinguish entire classes of objects and phenomena, as well as the relationships between them. At the same time, the connection between grammatical meanings and reality is not always obvious. For example, the connection of generic forms of nouns with real objects is not obvious: Earth- feminine, Mars- masculine, Moon- feminine, Jupiter - masculine, The sun- neuter gender, etc., although in this case turning to mythological sources and the history of words can help establish such a connection. Grammatical meanings develop according to the laws of the language, not always coinciding with the logic of practical activity.

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human, so the discrepancies between logic and grammar in the language are reflected in grammatical meanings.

Another difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning lies in the peculiarities of their relationship to thinking and the structure of the language. If words with their lexical meanings serve as a nominative means of a language and, as part of specific phrases, express thoughts, knowledge, ideas of a person, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organize thought, its design, that is, they are characterized by their intralinguistic nature. At the same time, both lexical and grammatical meanings appear in the word in unity, in mutual connection and conditionality.

grammatical form. Any grammatical meaning has its own external, material expression - a grammatical form. Term the form in linguistics it is most often used in two senses. Firstly, they denote the external, material - sound or graphic - side of the language, and secondly, this term is called a modification, a kind of some linguistic entity. In the second meaning, the term "form" is especially often used in relation to both the grammatical forms of the word, (land, land, I write, wrote, I will write etc.), and in relation to the class of grammatical forms of different words (the instrumental form, the first person form, the superlative form, etc.). Grammatical form- this is that part of the form of a word, phrase or sentence that expresses their grammatical meanings. The grammatical form is closely related to the concept of paradigm.

paradigm(from Greek paradeigma - example, sample) in modern linguistics, it is customary to call a set of grammatical forms of a word or class of words. The concept of paradigm appeared in ancient grammar. They denoted a sample, a model for changing the forms of one word. Traditionally, in Greek and Latin grammar, the forms of the word were divided into types of declension for names and conjugations for verbs. In the description of each type, a declension or conjugation table was used. In modern linguistics, the morphological paradigm is considered as the totality of all grammatical forms of one word. The morphological paradigm is characterized by the presence

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the stable, invariant part of the word (the stem was drunk) and its changing part (inflection, less often the suffix). Morphological paradigms are divided into large and small, as well as complete and incomplete. For example, the full paradigm of an adjective in Russian includes from 24 to 29 forms, which are distributed over a number of small paradigms: the paradigm of gender, the paradigm of number, the paradigm of complete and short forms, the paradigm of degrees of comparison. The full paradigm includes the set of all small paradigms, that is, all possible forms words, in an incomplete paradigm, some forms of the word are not formed. As for the syntactic paradigm, it is sometimes considered as a number of structurally different, but semantically correlative syntactic constructions, for example: The student is reading a book; The book is read by the student; The book was read by a student; Student reading a book etc.

All grammatical forms of a word are sometimes divided into inflection forms and word formation forms, including in this case word formation in the grammar section. This division goes back to F.F. Fortunatov. In inflection, the identity of the word is not violated. For example, in Russian for nouns, inflection consists in their change in cases and numbers: oak - oak - oak - oak, oaks etc. When word formation is formed from one word, other words that are different from it are formed, for example: oak, oak, oak.(Morphological inflection is developed in different languages ​​to varying degrees, for example, in East Slavic languages ​​it is strongly developed, in English it is weakly developed, in amorphous languages ​​it may be completely absent.

Classes of grammatical forms with homogeneous means of expressing grammatical meanings are combined into grammatical methods.

The main ways of expressing grammatical meanings:

Synthetic (from Greek - "connection") - implies the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word: grammatical meaning is expressed within the word;

Analytical (from Greek - "decomposition, dismemberment"1) - involves a separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of the word, which is manifested in the morphological immutability of the word and the use of service elements that, in combination with full-significant lexical units, form complex (analytical) grammatical forms (in Russian I will read - complex shape future tense of the verb, more important - a complex form of the comparative degree);

Mixed, or hybrid - combines the signs of synthetic and analytical types (in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition).

Depending on whether synthetic or analytical methods expressions of grammatical meanings prevail in the language, two main morphological type languages:

Synthetic - in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates (English, Chinese);

Analytical - in which the tendency to analyticism prevails.

Varieties of the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings:

Affixation (using different types affixes);

Reduplication (from late Latin reduplicatio - "doubling") - the expression of grammatical meaning by complete or partial repetition of the stem (Latin mordeo "bite" - momordi "I bit");

Suppletivism (from Latin suppleo - "I replenish, replenish") - combining heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (in Indo-European languages, when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives with the meaning "good / bad" and forms of pronouns: English good - better , I - me, German gut - besser, ich - mich, Russian bad - worse, I - me);

Stress and tone differences - the belonging of a word to one or another part of speech is determined by the place of stress (in English progress is the verb "to develop", progress is the noun "development"; in the mainstream, the stress can distinguish between the forms of the number of nouns and the form of the verb:

heads - heads, pour - pour).

Affix types:

inflection;

Agglutination.

Inflection(from Latin flexio "flexion") - inflectional affixation or inflection through inflection, which can convey several grammatical meanings at the same time:

With the help of endings, including zero ones (home - at home, walked - walked);

With the help of internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (English foot - feet "leg - legs"; mouse - mice "mouse - mice"). Varieties of internal flexion (according to J. Grimm):

Ablaut (German Ablaut "alternation") - historical alternations of vowels in the roots, expressing inflectional or word-forming meanings (English sing "sing" - sang "sang"; German singen "sing" - sang "sang");

¦ umlaut (German Umlaut - "transposition") - a change in the vowels (shifting them forward) of the root under the influence of the vowels of the suffix or ending, which performs a grammatical function (German Vater "father" - Vnter "fathers").

Agglutination(from Latin agglutinare - "to stick") - when each grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has one function; types of agglutination:

With the help of suffixes expressing grammatical meanings (in Russian, past tense forms are formed using the formative suffix -l-: chita-l-0, preaching-l-a);

Prefixes (in Latvian, prefix )a - serves as an indicator of the obligatory mood of the verb);

Confixes (confixation) - complex intermittent morphemes of the girdle type (in it, the formation of participles gefunden, gemachf);

Infixes (lat. - vici-vinco, rupi-rumpo);

Transfixes - the use of affixes, which, breaking the consonant root, serve as a "layer" of vowels among consonants (in Arabic, the general idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"writing" is expressed by the consonant stem ktb, and the past tense form of the active voice is formed using the transfix a-a-a - kataba " wrote", and the form of the passive zapogo through the transfix u-i-a - kutiba "he wrote").

Varieties of the analytical method:

Use of function words - prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, particles, articles and postpositions;

Through intonation, which performs the following functions:

¦ forms a statement and reveals its meaning;

¦ distinguishes between different communicative types sentences (question, motivation, narration);

¦ highlights the parts of the statement according to their semantic importance, draws up the syntactic construction as a whole and at the same time divides it into separate segments;

Through the use of word order - a certain arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase. Word order delimits the syntactic functions of the words in a sentence and the communicative types of the sentences themselves (together with intonation). There are languages ​​in which a fixed order of components expresses certain syntactic relations.

38. Parts of speech - basic lexical and grammatical classes for which

the words of the language are distributed. These sets of words have some common grammatical features. Depending on the structure of the language and the theoretical positions of researchers, from 2 to 15 parts of speech are distinguished.

signs, on the basis of which the distribution of lexicon units over large grammatical classes is made:

Semantic criterion - the general categorical grammatical meaning of words;

The syntactic criterion is the usual, primary syntactic function, that is, the ability to act in the position of a certain member of the sentence and be combined with certain classes of words), on the basis of which, in most languages ​​of the world, nouns and verbs are distinguished primarily (according to I.I. Meshchaninov);

Morphological criterion (features of form formation and the composition of grammatical categories, i.e., the system of its morphological categories and morphological categories), according to which words are divided into inflected (declined and conjugated), consisting of the main part and formal, and invariable (F.F. Fortunatov);

Derivational criterion - features of word formation, i.e. a set of word-formation models and word-formation means, as well as the ability to identify bases for replenishing the vocabulary of other parts of speech;

Phonological - features of the phonemic and prosodic structure of words of different classes.

When splitting the whole set lexical items on the basis of a syntactic criterion in combination with a semantic criterion, the bulk of lexical units is divided into:

Significant words (full-valued, fully-valued, auto-semantic) - can function as members of a sentence; a separate significant word can be the minimum of a sentence (statement);

Functional words (ambiguous, ambiguous, synsemantic, formal) - cannot function as members of a sentence;

Interjections - are isolated on the basis of the fact that they are sufficient in themselves to formalize the statement, and do not enter into syntactic relations with other words in this speech formation.

Types of significant words:

Nominal - have the most clearly expressed part-of-speech features: their characteristics are based simultaneously on syntactic and semantic features associated with them;

Pronominal (pronominal-indicative, deictic);

Numerals (numerical, numerative).

In the structure of the sentence, first of all, the positions of actants (objective participants in cases, events, situations) and the positions of predicates (signs) are distinguished.

Within the framework of one objective situation, actants act as carriers of signs that characterize their attitude to the situation as a whole and their attitude to each other.

Actant classification of nominal words:

Actant (non-predicate, non-attributive, subject) - nouns, which are characterized by such primary actant (syntactic) functions as subject and object. The use of a noun in the function of circumstance, definition or

the predicate for him is secondary;

Predicate (indicative) - a verb for which the predicate function is primary (attributing some currently relevant attribute to an object put forward for the role of a subject). Its functioning in any other position (subject, object, circumstance, definition) is secondary for it. Adjectives and adverbs, like the verb, belong to the characteristic words. Adjectives that express the features of objects as if out of time (i.e., non-actualized predicates) are specialized in use in the function of definition, and adverbs, the meanings of which are signs of other features, in the function of circumstances. The adverb is syntactically related to the verb, and

adjective - with a noun. In this classification system, classes of pronouns and numerals are not singled out.

Grammemes (formal indicator) of the main parts of speech:

Noun - gramme of objectivity (substantiveness): substantive word-classifying grammemes of gender or nominal class; inflectional grammes of case, number, animation - inanimateness, certainty - uncertainty, alienable - inalienable belonging;

Verb - procedural grammeme (verbalness): predicative verbal grammemes of tense, aspect, mood, voice, version, breed, interrogativeness, negation, as well as consonant grammemes of person, number, gender; grammes of transitivity - intransitivity, dynamism - static, limiting - non-limiting, modes of action (initiativity, repetition, one-act, unidirectionality - non-unidirectional movement, cumulativeness, distributiveness);

Adjective - the gramme of indicativeness (adjectivity): opposition of full and short forms, categories of degrees of comparison and categories of intensity, as well as concordant grammes of number, gender and case;

Adverbs - adverbial grammeme (adverbial™): grammemes of the category of degrees of comparison and category of intensity.

Transitivity of parts of speech- a phenomenon that can be traced between significant and service parts of speech, the volume of which is largely replenished due to significant words. The phenomenon of transition is also observed between significant parts speech due to conversion - morphological-syntactic method

fishing. The essence of this process:

From a phonetic point of view, a new word is not formed;

As a result of its transition from one part of speech to another, the word acquires new structural and grammatical properties, while losing a number of its grammatical features.

37 Grammar category- a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning (for example, nouns in the form of the singular and in the form of the plural are opposed to each other and form the grammatical category of number). Members of the same grammatical category are united by a common grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of a number) and differ in private meanings (for example, the values ​​of singularity - plurality). Grammatical categories provide a systematic organization of the morphological component of a given language.

At the heart of the grammatical category as a specially organized system of linguistic elements lies opposition (opposition). If one of the members of the opposition is actually absent, then the second one is also absent (in terms of meaning and content), even if it is formally represented in the word (real nouns have the singular form, but these words have no singular meaning, since they actually do not and cannot have a plural form).

Opposition types:

A privative opposition is such an opposition of two members, in which one member (strong, marked) has a pronounced semantic feature, and the second (weak, unmarked) is characterized by its absence, which leads to the fact that a weak member can act as a strong

Transposition is a figurative use of a grammatical form, when one of the forms of a grammatical category can act in the meaning of another form of the same paradigmatic series (for example, present, time can be used in the context of the past (present historical), which makes the story more alive).

Types of grammatical categories.

By the number of members they unite (grammatical forms):

Binary (binary) - combine two grammatical forms that are opposed to each other;

Trinomial (trinary) - combine three members;

Polynomial grammatical categories - are a system of more than three members opposed to each other.

By the nature of grammatical forms:

Inflectional (shaping) - represented by forms of the same word;

Non-inflective grammatical categories - are classifying; they combine grammatical forms, which are not forms of the same word, but independent lexical units that do not change, but are distributed according to the forms of this category; members of a non-inflective category or may be connected by word-formation relations.

In relation to extralinguistic reality and. hence the functions:

Interpretive or meaningful grammatical categories interpret certain phenomena and relations in extralinguistic reality;

Relational or formal grammatical categories serve only as a means of expressing the syntactic links of linguistic units.

Morphological category - a closed system with a limited number of elements, is not just a system of oppositions of elementary grammatical meanings, but a system of oppositions of grammes as two-sided entities, each with its own

signified and its signifier (or standard set of signifiers). The number of elements predetermines the number of morphological oppositions and the set of differential semantic features of grammes (the grammatical category of case in Russian includes 6 grammes, the number of oppositions between them reaches 16);

Syntactic grammatical - categories that belong primarily to the syntactic units of the language (the category of predicativity or the category of sentence members), however, they can also be expressed by units belonging to other language levels (word

and its form). This division is typical mainly for languages ​​of the inflectional type; in languages ​​of the agglutinative type, the boundaries between morphological and syntactic categories are erased.

45. Classification of languages- determining the place of each language among the languages ​​of the world; distribution of the languages ​​of the world into groups based on certain features in accordance with the principles underlying the study.

The issues of classifying the diversity of languages ​​of the world, their distribution according to certain taxonomic (from the Greek taxis - arrangement in order, nomos - law) headings of the article should be actively developed in early XIX in. Since the second half of the XX century. interest in the possibilities of other classifications of languages ​​of the world has increased, and the areal and functional classifications of languages ​​have received recognition. Each classification explains the linguistic similarity from its general theoretical positions and subdivides the languages ​​accordingly. The most developed and recognized are two classifications - genealogical and typological (or morphological).

Genealogical (genetic) classification:

Based on the concept of linguistic kinship;

The goal is to determine the place of a particular language in the circle of related languages, to establish its genetic links;

The main method is comparative-historical;

The degree of stability of the classification is absolutely stable (since each language initially belongs to a particular family, group of languages ​​and cannot change the nature of this affiliation).

Typological classification (originally known as morphological):

Based on the concept of similarity (formal and / or semantic) and, accordingly, the difference between languages; is based on the features of the structure of languages ​​(on the signs of the morphological structure of the word, the ways of connecting morphemes, the role of inflections and affixes in the formation of grammatical forms of the word and in the transfer of the grammatical meaning of the word);

The goal is to group languages ​​into large classes based on the similarity of their grammatical structure (principles of its organization), to determine the place of a particular language, taking into account the formal organization of its linguistic structure;

The main method is comparative;

The degree of classification stability is relative and historically changeable (since each language is constantly evolving, its structure and the theoretical understanding of this structure are changing).

Geographic (areal) classification(possible also within one

language in relation to its dialects):

Associated with the place of distribution (original or late) of a particular language (or dialect);

The goal is to determine the area of ​​the language (or dialect), taking into account the boundaries of its linguistic features;

The main method is linguogeographical;

The degree of classification stability - has greater or lesser stability, depending on the features underlying it.

Functional classification comes from the sphere of the functioning of the language; is based on the study of acts of speech and types language communication and divides languages:

Into natural, which are a means of communication (oral and written languages);

Artificial, that is, not reproducing the forms of natural languages;

Graphic, used in the field of science and technology (programming languages, informational, logical, etc.).

Cultural-historical classification considers languages ​​from the point of view of their relationship to the history of culture; takes into account the historical sequence of the development of culture; highlights:

Unwritten;

Written;

Literary languages ​​of the nationality and nation;

International communication.

According to the prevalence of the language and the number of people speaking it, they distinguish:

Languages ​​that are common in a narrow circle of speakers (tribal languages ​​of Africa, Polynesia; "one-aul" languages ​​of Dagestan);

Languages ​​spoken by individual nationalities (Dungan - in Kyrgyzstan);

Languages ​​spoken by the whole nation (Czech, Bulgarian);

Languages ​​that are used by several nations, the so-called international (French - in France, Belgium, Switzerland; Russian, serving the peoples of Russia);

Languages ​​that function as international languages ​​(English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, Russian - which is also an international language).

According to the degree of language activity, there are:

Living - actively functioning languages;

Dead (Latin, Gaulish, Gothic) - preserved only in written monuments, in place names or in the form of borrowings in other languages, or disappeared without a trace; some dead languages ​​are used today (Latin is the language of the Catholic Church, medicine, scientific terminology).

44. Members of the proposal- structural and semantic components of the sentence, expressed in words or phrases with their own syntactic categories. Parts of speech and members of the sentence differ from each other and interact with each other, since each significant part of speech in the statement acts as one or another member of the sentence.

Criteria for selecting members of the proposal:

Logical (or semantic);

Formal (or grammatical);

The communicative function of a sentence, which allows you to determine the topic and rheme of the message in it. Members of a sentence by their function and by their relation to the grammatical minimum of the sentence share:

On the main members - the subject and the predicate (they perform logical functions in the sentence and act as nuclear, grammatically supporting components of the sentence);

Secondary members - definition, addition and circumstance (perform structural and semantic functions in the sentence, expanding, clarifying, detailing the content of the statement).

There are dependency relations between the main and secondary members in the sentence: the minor members are grammatically dependent on the main members.

Functions of the main members of the proposal:

They are the center of the sentence structure, its core, since it is they who organize the minimum basis of the proposal;

They formally determine the grammatical organization of the sentence, express its grammatical meanings (modality, tense, person);

They perform a logic function.

Functions of secondary members of the proposal:

Semantic function, that is, they are distributors of the rest of its members (main and secondary) or the entire sentence as a whole, when the needs of communication make it necessary to clarify, concretize, "deploy" the components of the sentence;

Informatively, they can be more significant than the main ones.

Subject(tracing paper from Latin subjectum "subject") is a large grammatically independent member of the sentence, denoting the subject and indicating the "logical subject" (in the traditional concept) or, more broadly, the object to which the predicate refers. The subject can be expressed by the noun in it. etc., but in this position can

any substantivized form, phraseological unit and even a whole sentence can be used.

Predicate- the main grammatically semi-dependent member of the sentence, depending only on the subject and indicating an action, state, property or quality in their relation to the subject or, more broadly, to the object expressed by the subject, i.e. the predicate expresses the predicative sign of the subject.

Signs of the predicate:

Formally depends on the subject;

By conveying modality and tense, it forms the predicative center of the sentence;

It is usually expressed by a verb, but various circumstantial turns can also take its place.

Secondary members of the sentence:

definition- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining any member of a sentence with an objective meaning and denoting a sign, quality or property of an object. It is associated with the name being defined (or any other substantiated part of speech) by an attributive link according to

method of coordination, less often - by the method of control or adjacency.

The definition is usually expressed by an adjective;

addition- a minor grammatically dependent member of the sentence, extending and explaining any member of the sentence with the meaning of the action, object or feature and denoting the object in its relation to the action, subject or feature. The complement is usually expressed by a noun in indirect case and joins other words with control. Types of add-ons:

Direct (expressed by the form accusative without a preposition) correlates with the subject, so it is sometimes referred to as the main members of the sentence;

indirect;

circumstance- a secondary grammatically dependent member of the sentence, extending and explaining the members of the sentence with the meaning of the action or feature or the sentence as a whole and denoting where, when, under what circumstances the action is performed, or indicating the condition, reason, purpose of its implementation, as well as the measure, degree and the way it is manifested. Circumstances are expressed by an adverb, the main form syntactic connection- junction.

43. Proposal- the central unit of the syntactic system, and according to many modern linguists, in general, the central unit of the language, the generation of which in speech is all the other components of the language system as a whole. In the syntactic system, the sentence occupies the main position, since it marks the transition from the sphere of language to the sphere of speech.

Offer features:

Formation and expression of thought;

Description of a certain state of affairs as an integral ensemble of elements of the situation.

Offer properties:

Has a high pragmatic potential (compared to a phrase);

The binding to the communicative-pragmatic context is less than that of the text, when it is only one of the components of the text, and does not act autonomously (being a potential minimum of the text) in the role of a speech act, i.e., minimal discourse;

The ability to be the minimum possible text;

It is a unit of the text, i.e., a unit closer to the text than to the phrase;

Has a communicative purpose;

Intonation styled;

Acts both as a speech and as linguistic unit(as well as the phrase);

By itself, it is not reproducible as a finished inventory item;

It is built from words (more precisely, from word forms) that are members of a sentence;

Each time it is built anew in speech: in the process of implementation (updating) of one of the invariant formal-meaningful schemes (models) included in the syntactic system of the language; in the process of using certain (also invariant, belonging to the language) rules for its transformation from the initial form to the final one.

The multifaceted nature of the proposal is manifested in the fact that it:

It is a communicative sign (a complex sign formation capable of serving the transmission of a message; it acts as a minimal communicative unit that is directly related to a minimal communicative action - a speech act);

It has a situational relation (i.e., it correlates with a certain class of situations that are complex in structure as its complex denotation in the subject series and, accordingly, with the complex significat in the mental series);

"binding" a sentence to a specific situation is carried out with the help of means relating the described situation to one or another modal plan and temporary plan;

It has a structural minimum, an initial structure, which can be reduced to the unity of the subject and the predicate; the unity of the subject, predicate and object; only the predicate itself (zero position of the subject);

Expands and collapses, combines with other proposals into more complex complexes in accordance with a finite set of deployment rules and transformational rules;

In the grammatical description of a sentence, a hierarchy of syntactic meaningful units is revealed: syntaxeme - sentence member - sentence;

The multidimensionality of the content structure of the sentence is manifested in the fact that

How does a complex nomination describe a certain integral state of affairs (as an ensemble of participants in the situation and the relationship connecting them, i.e., the unity of semantic actants and a semantic predicate);

As a predicative unit expresses a certain integral judgment (as a unity of a logical subject and a logical predicate correlated with it);

How does a communicative-informational unit convey a certain integral message about something that is embedded in one or another "packaging" (as a unity of the given and the new, as the unity of the definite and the indefinite, as the unity of the theme and rheme, etc.);

As a communicative-pragmatic unit, it includes an invariant, context-independent part (propositional, factual component, or dictum) and a variable, context-dependent part (pragmatic frame, or communicative mode).

In the same sentence, several different content and formal structures are combined, each of which acts as a way of "packaging" the information transmitted through the sentence:

Propositional (propositive, predicate-argumentary);

Predicative (predicative, subject-predicate);

Actualizing (informational, identification, thematic and a number of other additional) - structures through which the conceptual categories of modality, temporality, personality, or personality - impersonality, affirmation - denial, etc., which have form-changing paradigms, are realized, providing "binding" of the proposal to the objective situation being described and the situation of the utterance;

Intensional (speech-actual, or communicative-pragmatic).

1. The most important features of a sentence as a syntactic unit:

The act of predication (from Latin praedicatio - statement) - a statement about the subject of thought, the original image and its interpretation;

Predicativity - grammatical expression predications.

Predication (in a broad sense) establishes a connection between an object and a feature, and predicativity establishes a connection between what is reported in a sentence and the situation in being itself.

Predication - the act of connecting independent objects of thought, expressed by independent words, for displaying and interpreting in the language of an event, a situation of reality; it involves the attribution of a certain attribute to an object - a subject: S is P. This attribute is called a predicative, or predicate (from late Latin praedicatum - "said"). A simple sentence is characterized by one predication. Combining several predications in the structure of one sentence

is called polypredicative. The basic form is a compound sentence.