- indicates the connection of thoughts, the order of presentation
- gives an assessment of the fact from the point of view. speaker (Come in, finally!)

- equal in meaning to after all, finally, as a result of everything

in the end

- the same function as “finally” (Shut up, after all!)

- (We walked and walked and finally arrived.) - the same function as “finally”. (They argued for a long time and eventually made a decision that suited everyone.)

however

- stands in the middle or at the end of a sentence (Look, however, how he spoke!)

- stands at the beginning of a sentence or between homogeneous members of a sentence and is an adversative conjunction (I didn’t want to see her anymore, but I had to.)
Exception: in sentences like: “However, it’s a cold spring today!” the word “however” is at the beginning of the sentence, acts as an interjection and is separated by a comma

Certainly

- usually acts as a water word (Of course, I will help you.)

- can act as a particle
(Of course I would go there...)

Means

- if equal in meaning to the words therefore, therefore
(I didn’t see her at school today, which means she was really sick.)

- if it plays the role of a predicate in a sentence (the meaning is close to the word means)
(She means too much to me to deceive her.)

at all

- if the combination is equal in meaning generally speaking
(Actually, this is very interesting)

- in other meanings
(He generally forbade going out after twelve)

mainly

- if the combination is equal in meaning, the most important thing is
(To prepare for the lesson, you need to read the theory and, mainly, complete the assignments.)

- if equal in meaning to the words predominantly, basically, most of all
(He survived mainly thanks to his friends.)

anyway

- if it has a restrictive-evaluative value
(At least I didn't say that.)

- if relevant under any circumstances
([In any case, he will never leave his former pet.)

in your
queue

- if used in a figurative meaning. (The following minor members are distinguished: definition, addition and circumstance, in the group of the latter, in turn, by the circumstance of place).

- if used in a meaning close to direct
(“And you?” I asked Lena in turn.)

if the introductory word is at the beginning or end of a separate common member of a sentence, then it is not separated from it by a comma, and if it is in the middle, then it is separated by commas (The young man, apparently having recently graduated from college, made many mistakes when answering. The young man the man, who had apparently recently graduated from college, made many mistakes in his answers.)

if the introductory word can be omitted or rearranged, then it is separated by a comma from the preceding coordinating conjunction; if this is impossible, then a comma is placed only after the introductory word, and on the border between the conjunction and the introductory word is placed (Firstly, he is very busy and, secondly, he does not want to see you. The misfortune did not change him at all, but on the contrary, it made it even stronger.)

introductory sentences are highlighted: with commas, if they are small in volume (For me, you know, everything has always worked out.) or if they are introduced using conjunctions like, how many, if (Today, as the newspapers report, a rally will take place in the center of Moscow.) ;

dashes if they are common (They - I noticed this right away - wanted to get rid of me as quickly as possible.);

brackets denote plug-in structures (in contrast to introductory sentences they do not express the speaker’s attitude to what was said, but contain some incidental or additional remarks): One evening (this was in the fall of 1912)...

86. Punctuation marks when addressing.

addresses are separated from other members of the sentence by commas (Alyosha, come to me, please.),

sometimes an exclamation point is placed after the address at the beginning of the sentence (Kirill! Why are you taking so long there?),

the particle o standing before the address is not separated from it by a comma (Oh Moscow, you are so beautiful!),

between repeated addresses connected by the conjunction a, a comma is placed, and after the conjunction itself, it is not placed (Fal, but fallen, buy me this toy.),

if two addresses are connected by a non-repeating connecting conjunction, then a comma is not placed between them (Hello, sun and merry morning).

87. Punctuation marks for interjections, affirmative and negative words.

interjections from sentence members are separated by commas (Life, alas, is not an eternal gift.),

if the interjection is pronounced with an exclamatory intonation, then an exclamation mark is placed instead of a comma (Hurray! Our team wins the match)),

particles o, well, ah, oh, which are used to enhance the semantic connotation, are not distinguished by commas (Oh yes, you are absolutely right. Oh, that’s what you are! Well, no, that’s too much.),

the word yes (expresses an affirmation) and the word no (expresses a negation) are separated from the sentence by a comma or exclamation mark (Yes, that is exactly what I want to say. No, you are mistaken.)

88. Punctuation marks in complex sentences.

A comma is placed between simple sentences in the Compound, regardless of what kind of conjunction they are connected with: connective, adversative, disjunctive, adjunctive or explanatory (The sky frowned, and soon a thunderstorm broke out. He had already forgotten everything, but she could not forgive him. Either the sun is shining very brightly, or my eyesight has become completely bad.).

If the phenomena spoken of in parts (of a complex sentence) quickly follow each other or are opposed to each other, then a dash is placed (A rocket fired - and everything around rumbled.).

There is no comma:

• if parts compound sentence have a common member of a sentence or a common subordinate clause and if they are connected connecting unions and, yes (in the meaning of and) or by dividing conjunctions or, or, then a comma is not placed between them (Cars raced through the streets and trams thundered. When it started to rain, the game stopped and everyone went queen.).

  between noun clauses connected by connecting conjunctions and, yes (meaning and) or disjunctive conjunctions or, or (Walking in the park and riding a bicycle.),

  between interrogative sentences connected by connecting conjunctions and, yes (meaning and) or disjunctive conjunctions or, or (When are we leaving and what time does the train leave?)

Two impersonal sentences in a complex sentence are separated by a comma (It got dark and it became cool.), BUT if the predicates are homogeneous in meaning, then a comma is not placed (You need to wash the floor and then you should wipe it dry.)

Punctuation marks in complex sentences.

If the subordinate clause comes before or after the main clause, then it is separated by a comma (When I came home, everyone was already asleep. The glory of those who die for the fatherland does not die.). If the subordinate clause is in the middle of the main clause, then it is separated by commas on both sides (In the evening, when I no longer had the strength to work, I went to the embankment.).

If a subordinate clause is attached to the main clause using conjunctions because, because, since, in order to, despite the fact that, etc., then the comma is placed only once either before the entire complex conjunction or before its second partly (I didn’t come because I had a lot to do. I came to express my condolences to you.)

If subordinate clauses depend on the same member of the main clause, then the rules for placing punctuation marks between them are the same as for homogeneous members of the sentence:

, (),().

, () And ().

[ , (), A ().

, (), () And ().

, and (), and (), and (). (after the main clause there is no comma before the first subordinate clause)

, (), and (), and ().

, () and (), () and ().

He said that the weather would improve and (that) we would go on a picnic.

Slavik behaves equally evenly both when he is angry and when he is very happy.

At the junction of two subordinating conjunctions or subordinating and coordinating conjunctions, a comma is placed between them only if the omission of the subordinate clause does not require a complete restructuring of the sentence (Masha said that when she comes next time, she will bring her fiance.); if the second part of the subordinate clause begins with the words how, but, then a comma is not placed (Masha said that when she comes next time, she will bring her fiance.)

Sometimes, when underlining intonation, before explanatory and conditional clauses with a conjunction, not a comma is placed, but a dash (I was sent some books, but I don’t know which ones yet.)

Punctuation marks in a non-union complex sentence.

Between parts of the non-union complex sentence can be put:

a comma if the parts are independent of each other, but united in meaning (The horses started moving, the bell rang, the carriage flew.),

semicolon, if there are commas inside one or both parts or if the sentences are far apart in meaning (the sentence splits into two semantic parts): Gerasim grabbed Mumu. squeezed her in his arms; in an instant she licked his nose, eyes, mustache and beard.

colon if

1. the second sentence explains the reason or tells about the consequences of what is said in the first sentence (They were silent the whole way: the noise of the engine prevented them from talking.),

   if in the first sentence there are words see, hear, know, etc., which prompt the reader that a statement of some facts will follow (I understood: she wanted me to leave.),

dash if

1. the first sentence denotes a condition or time (More lessons - more knowledge. The forest is cut down - the chips fly);

   when the second sentence has the meaning of comparison (If he looks, he will give him a ruble.);

   the second part contains some unexpected information or an indication of a rapid change of events (Lightning flashed - it began.);

   if in the second part there is a sharp contrast in relation to the first part (We wanted the best - it turned out as always.).

89. Punctuation marks for direct speech and quotation.

A - author's words
P - direct speech

A: "P".
"P", - a.
A: “P?”
"P?"
A: “P!”
"P!" - A.
A: “P...”
“P...”-ah. .

She asked, “Where have you been?”
“Where have you been?” she asked.

“P,-a,-p.”
“P,-a.-P.”

“P?-a.-P.” (Author's words inside direct speech.)
“P!-a. -P".
“P...-a.-P.”

“I don’t even know his name,” she said, “or where he lives.”

“P,- a:- P.” (If the author’s words contain two verbs with the meaning of naming, and one refers to the first part of direct speech, and the second to the second.)

“I don’t want to go there,” she said and asked: “What have you been doing all day today?”

A: “P” - a.
A: “P?” (Direct speech within the author's words.)
A: “P!” - A. A: “P...”-ah.

He said, “I’m very tired,” and immediately fell silent.

Punctuation marks when quoting.

If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, then quotation marks are placed at the beginning and at the end of the entire passage.

If a quotation is syntactically related to the text, then it is enclosed in quotation marks, but written with a small letter (Pushkin wrote that “the habit has been given to us from above.”)

Quoting can be framed as direct speech. (Pushkin said: “The habit has been given to us from above.”)

If the quotation is not taken in full, then an ellipsis is placed at the gap, either at the beginning or at the end (Depending on where the text is trimmed). If the sentence in this case begins with a quotation, then it is formatted as follows: “...Quoting” the text itself. (A capital letter is written even if the original is written in lowercase).

90. Combination of punctuation marks, author's use of punctuation marks.

When a comma and a dash meet, both a comma and a dash are written (The woman performing on stage is my mother.),

When encountering quotation marks:

• with a dot, quotes are written first, and then a dot. She said: “Come in.”),

  with a question mark, exclamation mark or ellipsis, in direct speech the question mark, exclamation mark or ellipsis is written first, then the quotation marks. Even if this is the end of the entire sentence, there is no period after the quotation marks (She asked: “What do you think about this issue?”),

  with the same signs, but when only certain members of the sentence are enclosed in quotation marks, an exclamation mark, a question mark and an ellipsis are placed depending on the construction of the entire sentence (Have you ever watched “White Sun of the Desert”?),

If the comma appears before the closing or opening parenthesis, then it is skipped; if after the closing one, it remains.

Authors do not always follow the rules of punctuation. Often they find their own, special use for them, and this achieves special expressiveness and beauty of the text. This punctuation is called the author's use of punctuation marks.

10. Concept of vocabulary, word.

LEXICO is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

WORD is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of a word are integrity, distinctiveness and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways to replenish the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-forming material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages ​​due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD- the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with a particular phenomenon of reality, fixed in the consciousness of the speaker.

Single and polysemous words.

Words can be unambiguous or ambiguous. Unambiguous words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in the Russian language, these are

• scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
• proper names (Nikolai Petrov),
• recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
• words with a narrow subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each individual context, one meaning is actualized. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the first place in the explanatory dictionary, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic originally had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have additional meanings, in addition to the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

Direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word “table” in Ancient Rus' had the meaning of “reign, capital,” but now it has the meaning of “piece of furniture.”

A figurative meaning is a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some similarity.

For example, the word “sediment” has a direct meaning: “solid particles present in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or walls of a vessel after settling,” and a figurative meaning is “a heavy feeling remaining after something.”

12. HOMONYMS- these are words that have different meanings, but are identical in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a “spherical flying smoky mass” (a club of smoke) and a club is a “cultural and educational institution” (a railway workers’ club). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.

13. SYNONYMS- these are words close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.

Synonyms may differ slightly in sign or style, sometimes both. Synonyms that completely match in meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language; these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).

Synonyms are used to make speech more varied and avoid repetition, as well as to give a more accurate description of what is being said.

14. ANTONYMS- these are words with opposite meanings.

Antonyms are words that have correlative meanings; You cannot put in an antonymic pair words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different sides (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).

If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning has its own antonym (for example, for the word “old” in the phrase “old man” the antonym is the word “young”, and in the phrase “old carpet” - “new”).

Like synonyms, antonyms are used for greater expressiveness of speech.

15. Word categories by origin.

All words in Russian are divided into:

• primordially Russian, which include Indo-European words (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic pe-sika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), Russian vocabulary proper (mason, leaflet);
• borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages ​​(finger, mouth - Old Slavonicisms, borscht - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and non-Slavic languages ​​(Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration ; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)

16. Outdated words and neologisms.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that were previously used very often are now almost unheard of, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more frequently. Such processes in language are associated with changes in the life of the society it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; If society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept denotes.

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century, the word “satellite” was a neologism.

From a stylistic point of view, all words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

• stylistically neutral or commonly used (can be used in all styles of speech without limitation);
• stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “out of style” violates the correctness and purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word “interference” belongs to the colloquial style, and the word “expel” belongs to the book style.

8. In the Russian language, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

Common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope of use.

17. Vocabulary of limited scope of use:

• dialectisms are words belonging to a specific dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects that contain a significant number of original words known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be

1. lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibulya,
2. morphological (characterized by a special inflection): in me,
3. phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [khverma] - farm, etc.

• Professionalisms are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become generally used; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),

10. Concept of vocabulary, word.

LEXICO is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

WORD is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of a word are integrity, distinctiveness and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways to replenish the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-forming material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages ​​due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD- the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with a particular phenomenon of reality, fixed in the consciousness of the speaker.

Single and polysemous words.

Words can be unambiguous or ambiguous. Unambiguous words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in the Russian language, these are

• scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
• proper names (Nikolai Petrov),
• recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
• words with a narrow subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each individual context, one meaning is actualized. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the first place in the explanatory dictionary, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic originally had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have additional meanings, in addition to the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

Direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word “table” in Ancient Rus' had the meaning of “reign, capital,” but now it has the meaning of “piece of furniture.”

A figurative meaning is a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some similarity.

For example, the word “sediment” has a direct meaning: “solid particles present in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or walls of a vessel after settling,” and a figurative meaning is “a heavy feeling remaining after something.”

12. HOMONYMS- these are words that have different meanings, but are identical in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a “spherical flying smoky mass” (a club of smoke) and a club is a “cultural and educational institution” (a railway workers’ club). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.

13. SYNONYMS- these are words close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.

Synonyms may differ slightly in sign or style, sometimes both. Synonyms that completely match in meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language; these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).

Synonyms are used to make speech more varied and avoid repetition, as well as to give a more accurate description of what is being said.

14. ANTONYMS- these are words with opposite meanings.

Antonyms are words that have correlative meanings; You cannot put in an antonymic pair words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different sides (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).

If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning has its own antonym (for example, for the word “old” in the phrase “old man” the antonym is the word “young”, and in the phrase “old carpet” - “new”).

Like synonyms, antonyms are used for greater expressiveness of speech.

15. Word categories by origin.

All words in Russian are divided into:

• primordially Russian, which include Indo-European words (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic pe-sika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), Russian vocabulary proper (mason, leaflet);
• borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages ​​(finger, mouth - Old Slavonicisms, borscht - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and non-Slavic languages ​​(Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration ; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)

16. Outdated words and neologisms.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that were previously used very often are now almost unheard of, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more frequently. Such processes in language are associated with changes in the life of the society it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; If society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept denotes.

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century, the word “satellite” was a neologism.

From a stylistic point of view, all words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

• stylistically neutral or commonly used (can be used in all styles of speech without limitation);
• stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “out of style” violates the correctness and purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word “interference” belongs to the colloquial style, and the word “expel” belongs to the book style.

8. In the Russian language, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

- common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope of use.

17. Vocabulary of limited scope of use:

• dialectisms are words belonging to a specific dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects that contain a significant number of original words known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be

1. lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibulya,
2. morphological (characterized by a special inflection): in me,
3. phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [khverma] - farm, etc.

• Professionalisms are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become generally used; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),

Vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language

1. Speech qualities of verbal expression

1 . Content.

Need to know, What say. It should be interesting and new for the recipient. Without this, speech will turn into idle talk, chatter.

· It [prose] requires thoughts and thoughts - without them brilliant expressions serve no purpose. (A. Pushkin)

· On thoughts breathing with power, words descend like pearls. (M. Lermontov)

· Follow the rule persistently: keep your words cramped and your thoughts spacious. (N. Nekrasov)

2 . Accuracy.

According to M. Gorky, “precision gives language strength and beauty.”

Speech should reflect knowledge of the subject of speech - the topic. The accuracy of the depiction of reality is the result of observation. The accuracy of observations and simplicity of descriptions of nature by masters of artistic expression is striking.

Nature's clear smile

Through a dream he greets the morning of the year;

The skies are shining blue.

Still transparent, forests

It's like they're turning green.

Bee for field tribute

Flies from a wax cell.

The valleys are dry and colorful;

The herds rustle and the nightingale

Already singing in the silence of the night. ( A. Pushkin)

Words must be used in strict accordance with their meaning. You should not use words whose meaning is not entirely clear. This creates an unfavorable impression. Absolute accuracy is especially important in scientific and business speech, where distortion of facts, figures, etc. is completely unacceptable. In journalism, different interpretations of facts are possible, but the facts must remain reliable.

3 . Logic.

a) Speech must be structured according to certain laws.

b) In speech it is necessary to follow the rules of logic.

Famous pun It was raining and there were two students. One in galoshes, the other to the university based on the play of two meanings of the verb go and ambiguity of preposition V. The comic effect is created by combining the logically incompatible. Unexpected rethinking of ordinary things makes people laugh.

4 . Right.

Compliance with the norms of the literary language (orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, lexical, etc.)

Deviations from literary norms must be motivated by the goals and conditions of communication.

5 . Expressiveness.

Expressiveness of speech is created not only by the ability to choose the most accurate and appropriate words speech situation words, but also the widespread use of proverbs, phraseological units, catchphrases and artistic and visual means. They sound especially often in oral speech and decorate written phraseological units.

6 . Purity.

Purity of speech presupposes the absence of words and expressions that are not literary. Swear words, rude words, and “weed” words are completely unacceptable in literary speech.

Dialectisms are also inappropriate in good speech if they are used unnecessarily, instead of words of a literary language.

Slang words and expressions do not decorate speech ( I'm on a high, I'm out of my mind, etc.)

The purity of speech is violated by the abuse of foreign words, of which there have been especially many recently in newspaper and journalistic style: consensus(agreement), rating(rating, level of fame, popularity), pluralism(diversity of opinions), precedent(previous case) plebiscite(popular vote), etc.

7 . Emotionality.

Speech has a stronger impact on the interlocutor if it expresses the speaker’s attitude to what he is saying, if the speech is emotional. This sign of good speech is not characteristic of works of scientific and business style, but is necessary for colloquial, journalistic and artistic styles of speech.

The emotional coloring of speech is created by intonation, exclamatory sentences, introductory words and expressions, specific vocabulary, and a variety of artistic and visual means.

2. Literary form of the Russian language. Varieties.

Literary language- a processed part of the national language, which has, to a greater or lesser extent, written norms; the language of all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form.

Literary language – supra-dialectal subsystem (form of existence) national language, which is characterized by such features as normativity, codification, multifunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige among speakers of a given national language. The property of all who own its standards. It functions in both written and spoken forms. The language of fiction (the language of writers), although usually guided by the same norms, contains much that is individual and not generally accepted. In different historical eras and among different peoples, the degree of similarity between the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal.

Literary language is the common written language of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, schooling, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form, often written, but sometimes oral. That is why there are differences between written-book and oral-spoken forms of literary language, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.

A literary language is a historically established, socially conscious language system, which is distinguished by strict codification, but is mobile and not static, which covers all spheres of human activity: the sphere of science and education - scientific style; socio-political sphere – journalistic style; sphere of business relations – official business style.

The idea of ​​the “fixedness” of the norms of a literary language has a certain relativity (despite the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile over time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture of a people without a developed and rich literary language. This is great public importance the problem of literary language itself.

There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either written literary language, or colloquial literary language, or the language of fiction, etc.

Literary language cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, although correlative concepts.

3. Colloquial form of the Russian language. Varieties.

If book styles (scientific, official business, newspaper journalistic, artistic) are used primarily in official settings and in writing and require constant care about the form of expression, then conversational style used in informal settings. The degree of speech preparedness may vary. In everyday conversation, she is usually completely unprepared (spontaneous). And when writing a friendly letter, pre-written drafts can also be used. But this preparedness never reaches the degree that is characteristic of book styles.

All this leads to the fact that the dominant colloquial style, especially colloquial speech, existing in orally informal personal communication is to minimize concerns about the form of expression of thoughts. And this, in turn, gives rise to a whole series linguistic features conversational style.

On the one hand, the colloquial style of speech is characterized by a high degree of language standardization. Typical, standard constructions are convenient for spontaneous (unprepared) speech. For each typical situation there are stereotypes.

For example, etiquette stereotypes include the following phrases: Good afternoon!; Hello!; What's new?; Bye! Stereotypes used in urban transport: Are you leaving next?; in the shop - Weigh the oil, three hundred grams etc.

On the other hand, in relaxed atmosphere the speaker is not limited by the strict requirements of official communication and can use untyped, individual means.

It should be remembered that spoken language serves not only the purposes of communication, but also the purposes of influence. Therefore, the conversational style is characterized by expressiveness, clarity and imagery.

Some linguists distinguish three groups of colloquial speech from a lexical-semantic point of view.

1 . Ordinary colloquial words, i.e. everyday colloquial, or everyday.

2 . Colloquial words with limited use: everyday vernacular, colloquial terminological words, or slang.

3 . Colloquial words with a pronounced limitation in the scope of use: dialectal, argotic and roughly colloquial, reduced words.

Each of these groups has words that are functionally connotative, that is, stylistically colored.

The literary-colloquial group includes words that have a certain shade of decline compared to other styles. But despite this, such words are found in many areas of human communication. So, for example, the words correspondence, evening, betonka, bagpipes, high-voltage, anti-aircraft gun, manner; cry, fever, celebrate (birthday) and others are widely used in different genres newspaper-journalistic style.

Colloquial words include words used in everyday communication. Like the words of literary colloquial speech, they do not violate the norms of colloquial speech itself. But here words with a reduced meaning will prevail, which also have additional stylistic overtones. This includes words with disapproving, playful, ironic, familiar connotations of speech. Their use in other styles of language will be inappropriate and ridiculous. Colloquial-everyday (colloquial-everyday) words include such words as brainless, nonsense, chatter, grandfather, joker, etc. All these words have a negative or positive expressive-emotional assessment that is not too conspicuous.

4. Vocabulary. Polysemantic words, synonyms, ononyms, antonyms, paronyms.

Lexis (from ancient Greek τὸ λεξικός “relating to a word; word; figure of speech”) is a set of words of a particular language, part of a language. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects or phenomena. The science of lexicology, as well as semasiology and onomasiology, studies vocabulary.

All words are divided into single-valued and polysemous.

Unambiguous words are words that have only one lexical meaning.

Polysemous words are words that have two or more lexical meanings.

Examples of unambiguous words: trousers, perpendicular, cake, lovely.

Examples of polysemous words:

hand (part of the body - left hand; handwriting, creative style - the hand of a master)

beautiful (outwardly attractive - a beautiful girl; interesting, spectacular, difficult to perform - a beautiful solution to a problem, a beautiful goal; designed only for external effect - these are just beautiful words)

cream (cosmetic product - hand cream, confectionery product - cake with chocolate cream).

Typically, all meanings of a polysemantic word are related to each other by similarity or contiguity. For example, the cap of a mushroom or a nail is so called because it looks like a cap - a headdress. And a wardrobe is not only a wardrobe for clothes (there is an old wardrobe in the room), but also a room for storing clothes (to put a coat in the wardrobe), as well as the clothes themselves (to update the wardrobe) - in this case, the meanings of the word are related by contiguity.

The transfer of a name by similarity is called metaphor, and by contiguity - metonymy. A commonly used metaphor or metonymy leads to the formation of a new meaning of a polysemantic word. The author's metaphor and metonymy are means of expression.

It is important to distinguish polysemantic words from homonyms: the meanings of polysemantic words are related by similarity or contiguity, but the meanings of homonyms are in no way related to each other. Example of homonyms: dachshund (dog breed) – dachshund (tariff).

Synonyms(from ancient Greek σύν “together” ὄνομα “name”) - words of the same language, usually belonging to the same part of speech, different in pronunciation and spelling, but having a similar lexical meaning.

Examples of synonyms in Russian: cavalry - cavalry, brave – brave, go – walk.

They serve to increase the expressiveness of speech and help avoid monotony.

Homonyms- these are morphemes and other units of language that are identical in spelling, but different in meaning. The term was introduced by Aristotle. Not to be confused with homophones, homographs, homoforms and paronyms.

Antonyms(Ancient Greek ἀντι - prefix with the meaning of the opposite ὄνομα “name”) - these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: “truth” - “lie”, “kind” – “angry”, “speak” – “be silent”.

Paronyms(from ancient Greek παρα- - a prefix with the meaning of contiguity, ὄνομα - “name”) - these are words similar in sound and morphemic composition, but differing in lexical meaning. It is also possible to mistakenly use one of them instead of the other. For example, addressee - addresses n etc. By analogy with a translator’s false friends, paronyms are sometimes called false brothers.

5. Passive and active composition of the language: historicisms, archaisms, neologisms.

The set of words of the modern Russian language, as a designation of objects, phenomena and concepts, forms its vocabulary, or vocabulary. Words are characterized by a certain specificity: they differ from each other in their origin, the degree of their activity, the sphere of use and their stylistic affiliation. Taking into account these features of linguistic units makes it possible to justify general principles vocabulary classifications:

According to its origin, vocabulary is divided into native Russian and borrowed (from Old Church Slavonic and other languages ​​of the world);

According to the degree of use, vocabulary is divided into active and passive vocabulary (the first includes regularly and frequently reproduced units, the second includes outdated and new vocabulary: historicisms, archaisms and neologisms);

Outdated words.

Words that have ceased to be actively used in a language do not disappear from it immediately. For some time they are still understandable to speakers of a given language, they are known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. Such words make up the passive vocabulary and are listed in explanatory dictionaries with the mark obsolete.

The process of archaization of part of the vocabulary of a language, as a rule, occurs gradually, therefore, among the obsolete words there are those that have a very significant “experience” (for example, child, vorog, reche, scarlet, therefore, this); others are removed from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, since they belong Old Russian period its development. Some words become obsolete in a very short period of time, having appeared in the language and disappeared in the modern period; cf.: shkrab - in the 20s replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate; NKVD officer - NKVD employee. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.

The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extralinguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be determined by linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs oshyu, odesnu (left, right) disappeared from active dictionary, because the producing nouns shuytsa - “left hand” and right hand - “right hand” were archaized. In such cases, the systemic relationships of lexical units played a decisive role. So, the word shuytsa fell out of use, fell apart and semantic connection words united by this historical root (for example, the word shulga did not survive in the language in the meaning of “left-handed” and remained only as a surname going back to the nickname). Antonymous pairs (shuitsa - right hand, oshiu - right hand), synonymous connections (oshyu, left) were destroyed. However, the word right hand, despite the archaization of words associated with it through systemic relations, remained in the language for some time. In Pushkin’s era, for example, it was used in the “high syllable” of poetic speech; cf: And the sting of a wise snake in frozen lips mine he put with his bloody right hand (P.), while oshyu was only an echo of a dilapidated archaic, and its use was possible only in a satirical context: Oshyu here sits with me the eighth wonder of the world (Bat.)

Obsolete words are divided into two groups: historicisms And archaisms.

TO historicisms These include those obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the fact that the objects or phenomena they denote have passed away from life: armyak, caftan, camisole, chain mail, serf, prince, armor, etc. Historicisms have no synonyms in modern Russian. In the Russian language, a special group consists of historicisms Soviet period, these are: tax in kind, NEP, NEPman, laborer, workers' faculty, kulak, committee of the poor, budenovka, etc.

Archaisms, their types

TO archaisms These include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, which for some reason have been supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary; Wed every day - always, comedian - actor, necessary - necessary, percy - chest, verb - speak, know - know. Their main difference from historicisms is the presence of synonyms in modern language, devoid of a hint of archaism.

Words can be archaized only partially, for example, in their suffixal design (vysost - height), in their sound (ocim - eighth, goshpital - hospital), in some of their meanings (nature - "nature", fairly - "excellent", disorder - "disorder" ). This gives grounds to distinguish several groups within archaisms.

Lexical archaisms- words that are outdated in all their meanings: lzya (possible), barber (hairdresser), zelo (very), therefore, know, is coming.

Lexico-word-formative archaisms- words in which individual word-forming elements are outdated: fisherman, flirt, vskolki (since), necessary, handicrafts (craft), transgress.

Lexico-phonetic archaisms- words whose phonetic design is outdated, which has undergone some changes in the process of historical development of the language: solodky, vorog, young, breg, night, Sveisky (Swedish), Aglitsky (English), iroism, atheism.

Lexico-semantic archaisms- words that have lost individual values: guest – “merchant”, shame – “spectacle”, vulgar – “popular”, dream – “thought”.

The largest group consists of lexical archaisms themselves, which can be subjected to further systematization by highlighting words that are close in time of transition to the passive stock, or by distinguishing, for example, words that have the same root in modern vocabulary (lzya - impossible, ryakaya - slob) and words , deprived family ties with modern nominations: uy – “maternal uncle”, strynyya – “uncle’s wife”, cherevye – “leather (cf.: Ukrainian chereviki), vezha – “tent, wagon, etc.

3. New words (neologisms).

The lexical composition of the language is constantly updated with new words, neologisms created to denote new objects, phenomena, and to express new concepts. At the moment of their appearance, they enter the passive vocabulary and remain neologisms until they lose their connotation of novelty and freshness. When such words become commonly used and enter the active vocabulary, they cease to be neologisms.

Neologisms, their types

The classifications of neologisms are based on various criteria for their identification and evaluation. Depending on the method of appearance, neologisms are distinguished lexical, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words. Among the lexical neologisms, on the basis of word formation, one can distinguish words produced with the help of suffixes (earthlings), prefixes (pro-Western), as well as suffix-prefix formations (lunar landing, undock), names created by compounding words (lunokhod, hydronevesity), compound abbreviated words (omon , special forces, CIS, State Emergency Committee) and abbreviated words (pom., deputy).

Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into general language, appeared along with a new concept or new reality, and individually-author's, introduced into use by specific authors. The vast majority of neologisms belong to the first group; Thus, neologisms that appeared at the beginning of the century collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plan many others are characterized by routineness.

The second group of neologisms includes, for example, the word created by V. Mayakovsky pro-meeting. Having crossed the boundaries of individual authorial use, becoming the property of the language, these words have now joined the active vocabulary. The language has also long mastered the terms introduced by M. V. Lomonosov constellation, full moon, attraction; first used by N.M. Karamzin's words industry, future etc.

The so-called occasionalisms(lat. occasionalis random) – lexical units, the occurrence of which is determined by a certain context. All the above neologisms belong to the language, they have become part of the Russian vocabulary, recorded in dictionaries, like any lexical item, with all the values ​​assigned to them.

Occasional neologisms- these are words formed by writers and publicists according to word-formation models existing in the language and used only once in a certain work - high-noiseDubrovy(P.), in heavy snakes hair (Bl.), fiery cystic elderberry sprigs (Color). The authors of such neologisms can be not only writers; We ourselves, without noticing it, often come up with words for the occasion (such as opener, unpack, oversad). Children especially create a lot of occasionalisms: I drank myself; Look how it's raining; I'm no longer a baby, but a big one and more.

In order to distinguish between artistic and literary occasionalisms and purely everyday ones, which are not a fact of artistic speech, the former are called individual-stylistic. If everyday occasionalisms usually arise in oral speech, involuntarily, without being fixed anywhere, then individual stylistic ones are the result of a conscious creative process, they are imprinted on the pages of literary works and perform a certain stylistic function in them.

In terms of their artistic significance, individual stylistic neologisms are similar to metaphors: their creation is based on the same desire to discover new semantic facets in a word and create an expressive image using economical means of speech. Like the brightest, freshest metaphors, individual stylistic neologisms are original and unique. At the same time, the writer does not set himself the task of introducing the words he invented into use. The purpose of these words is different - to serve as a means of expression in the context of one specific work.

Depending on the goals of creating new words and their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative And stylistic. The former perform a purely nominative function in the language, the latter give figurative characteristics to objects that already have names.

Nominative neologisms include, for example, the following: futurology, feminization, pre-perestroika (period), pluralism. The appearance of nominative neologisms is dictated by the needs of the development of society, the successes of science and technology. These neologisms arise as names of new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although the simultaneous emergence of competing names (cosmonaut - astronaut) is possible, one of which, as a rule, subsequently displaces the other. The bulk of nominative neologisms are highly specialized terms that constantly replenish the scientific vocabulary and over time can become commonly used; Wed: lunar rover, dock, cosmodrome.

Stylistic neologisms are created as figurative names of already known objects and phenomena: pioneer, atomic city, auto city, starship. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms that are inferior to them in terms of intensity of expressive coloring; cf: starship - spaceship. However, the frequent use of these neologisms in speech transfers them into the active vocabulary and neutralizes their stylistic coloring. For example, the word health resort, which came into the language as a stylistic neologism, is now perceived as a neutral synonym for the words sanatorium, holiday home.

6. Origin of Russian vocabulary. Exoticisms. Barbarisms.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has gone through a long development process. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in ancient times, others – relatively recently.

The replenishment of Russian vocabulary proceeded in two directions.

1 . New words were created from word-forming elements existing in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

2 . New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table.

Exoticism – foreign language borrowing, denoting an object or phenomenon from the life of another people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to their persistent ethnic association, exoticisms, with rare exceptions, are not fully assimilated and usually remain on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. However, such words can often be changed to fit the norms of the new language or distorted, especially if they came through a third language, such as sushi or comics. Close to exoticism are localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms, which describe the life realities of a subethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the Széklers (Székelys) and Csangó (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Cooking and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, taco, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)

Barbarism- a word from a foreign language or a figure of speech modeled after a foreign language, violating the purity of speech of a native speaker.

Barbarism is one of the least mastered types of borrowed vocabulary; it can be used in transliteration or even in foreign language writing. Usually used for stylistic purposes to create “local flavor” or to follow “fashion demands”.

7. Phraseologisms and catchwords.

Absolutely every person uses phraseological units in communication with other people. What is a phraseological unit and what do you eat it with? A phraseological unit is a stable combination of words, that is, with an unchanged order, which, in turn, individually do not mean the same thing as together. Where do phraseological units come from? Who invented them? It is likely that phraseological units, also known as idioms, aphorisms, idioms began to exist from the time human speech appeared. Academician V. began to closely study phraseological units, and he also laid the foundation for phraseological units as a linguistic discipline. Nowadays it is quite difficult to imagine our life without phraseological units. Often we use them in a specific situation, sometimes even to link text in order to emotionally enhance the effect of what was said. In some moments it is impossible to do without phraseological units! For example, “don’t put your teeth on me” in the meaning - don’t say too much, you will agree that a phraseological unit sounds more emotional and persistent than just a request not to say too much, unnecessary things. Phraseologisms: examples and their meanings. History of origin. The origin of phraseological units. For example, such a phraseological unit as “leading by the nose” in its unity means to deceive a person; if you take the words separately, then the meaning is already lost. The history of the emergence of this phraseological unit goes back to Central Asia. Previously, camels and bulls were led there by ropes that were tied to rings threaded through the nose of the camel or bull. Thus, the animal’s disposition becomes more flexible. Such a phraseological unit as “the deal is in the bag,” meaning that everything is fine, the assigned task has been completed, was “born” in the distant, distant past, several centuries ago, when important letters and papers were delivered by a messenger on horse artillery. In those days, carrying a bag with important papers was extremely dangerous, since robbers could attack and take it away along the way. To preserve important papers, they were sewn into the lining of the messenger's hat, and he delivered them to the specified place safe and sound. Or, for example, the phraseological unit “get it on your nose,” meaning to remember once and for all! Don’t think about it, it is not associated with any physical abuse. It’s just that in ancient times, when people were still illiterate, they carried a small tablet with them everywhere and if they needed to remember something, they made notches on it. This small board was called the nose. Interesting, isn't it? Sentences with phraseological units: examples. Several examples of using phraseological units in sentences. Surely he won’t go to school today! Your friend is quite strange, out of this world. It is written on his forehead who he is. The prodigal son has returned home! I know everything, you don’t have to lead me by the nose.

winged words

commonly used expressions, phrases, sayings of historical figures and literary characters. Winged words, unlike an aphorism, may not express a complete thought, but simply represent an apt figurative expression. For example, “I came, I saw, I conquered” by Julius Caesar, “And yet she turns” by Galileo Galilei, “Potemkin villages” (from memoirs of the 18th century). Winged words, as a rule, have already lost contact with their original source and, with each use, are rethought in connection with a specific situation.

Publicists, speakers, and politicians resort to using catchwords as confirmation of their opinion or an apt argument against an opponent. Sometimes there is a deformation of popular words (for example, a newspaper headline “I came, I saw, I paid”). Often winged words are filled with new content in literary work. For example, the use of a Latin proverb in “The Stranger” by A. A. Blok:

And drunkards with rabbit eyes.

8. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Types of dictionaries.

Lexicography– a section of linguistics devoted to the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, one of the areas of applied lexicology.

There are two main types of dictionaries based on their content: encyclopedic And linguistic. The object of description in an encyclopedic dictionary and encyclopedia is various objects, phenomena and concepts; the object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of the description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (its meaning, compatibility, etc.), but the nature of the information provided by the dictionary varies depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

The main type of linguistic dictionary is Dictionary. An explanatory dictionary serves to interpret the meaning of words; their role in studying the lexical system of a language is enormous. In an explanatory dictionary you can get information about the lexical meaning of a word, find out whether it is ambiguous or not, find out whether it has homonyms. Such a dictionary also provides information about the basic orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, stylistic characteristics of the word, and provides examples of word usage. The dictionary consists of dictionary entries . At the beginning of a dictionary entry there is a capital word (the totality of all capital, i.e. interpreted, words of the dictionary is called a dictionary). The interpretation of meanings in a dictionary can be presented in different ways: descriptive(a description of the essential features of an object, phenomenon is given), synonymous(the meaning of the word is explained using a selection of synonyms), referential(derived words are described by referring to the producer, taking into account the meaning of the word-forming device). In one interpretation they can be combined different ways. Different meanings of the same word can be interpreted in different ways.

Dictionaries may differ in the selection of vocabulary (in composition and number of words included). Thus, a dictionary can cover the entire vocabulary of a language or any of its individual layers (dictionaries of terms, foreign words, slang vocabulary). Dictionaries that include vocabulary of the national (national) language (for example, “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.V. Dahl) or individual layers of the national language that are not included in the literary language (“Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects”, “Arkhangelsk Regional Dictionary”) are non-normative– they do not codify the literary language, do not establish its boundaries. If the dictionary is normative(these are all explanatory dictionaries published in Soviet times), it includes the vocabulary of the literary language.

A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by Dahl's dictionary, published in 1863 and including 200 thousand words. In 1935, D.N. Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language was published in 4 volumes. This is a normative dictionary with a carefully developed marking system. In 1949, S.I. Ozhegov’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published. In the first edition, it contained about 50 thousand words. In the 1960s, the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language (BAS) was published - the most complete of the normative explanatory dictionaries. Explanatory dictionaries differ in the volume of the vocabulary, the principles of word arrangement, and the technical means of presenting material.

In addition to sensible ones, there are other types linguistic dictionaries, differing in what aspect of linguistic units is the main one in them. There are translation and reference dictionaries (spelling, spelling), reflecting systemic relationships in vocabulary (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

Linguistic dictionaries differ in the way they organize material. The most common is alphabetical way of arranging words. The dictionary can be organized by nesting the principle when one dictionary entry interprets not a word, but the entire word-forming nest.

9. Expressive means of language. Paths.

Means of verbal expression are one of the most important factors thanks to which the Russian language is famous for its richness and beauty, which has been sung more than once in poetry and immortal works of Russian literary classics. To this day, Russian is one of the most difficult languages ​​to learn. This is facilitated by the huge number of means of expression that are present in our language, making it rich and multifaceted. Today there is no clear classification of means of expression, but two conventional types can still be distinguished: stylistic figures and tropes.

Trails(from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech, technique, image) - such turns of speech that are based on the use of words in a figurative meaning and are used to enhance the expressiveness of the speech of the speaker or writer.

Metaphor (from the Greek metafora - transfer, figurative meaning) - transfer of a name from one reality to another based on the similarity of characteristics. For example: a noble nest, the sound of waves, etc.

Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the renaming of an object based on the similarity between the object and the material from which it is made. For example: the theater applauded (instead the audience applauded).

Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - correlation) (a type of metonymy) - renaming an object based on a quantitative relationship; the name of the part (smaller) instead of the whole (larger) or vice versa. For example: My little head disappeared (instead of I disappeared).

Comparison is a comparison of two concepts in which their similarity in some way is revealed. For example: The road winds like a gray ribbon...; Snow dust stands in a column in the air; The snowflakes sparkled like diamonds.

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbola - exaggeration) is a trope of speech, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, meaning, etc. any object or phenomenon. For example: river of blood.

Litota (from the Greek litotes - simplicity) - 1) deliberate understatement; 2) the trope of speech, which consists in defining a concept or object by negating the opposite; denial of a feature that is not characteristic of the object, i.e. a kind of “negation of the negation.” For example: 1) a little man; 2) not useful.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) is a trope consisting of likening a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule. For example: This is Hercules! (about a frail person).

Epithet (from the Greek epitheto - attached) is an artistic, figurative definition. It is usually expressed by a word in a figurative meaning - an adjective, an adverb, an appendix noun. For example: emerald eyes, dress loudly, wind tramp.

Figures of speech– in general, any figures of speech that deviate from the natural norm.

An allegory (from the Greek allos - other, agoreuo - I say) is an allegorical depiction of a situation using a specific life image: we are talking about one thing, but in essence we mean something completely different. For example: Anyone who looks back too often can easily stumble and fall.

Alliteration (from Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) is a figure of speech, a stylistic device that consists in repeating the same consonant sounds or sound combinations. For example: The hiss of foamy glasses and the blue flame of punch.

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora) is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of the same sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic elements at the beginning of each parallel row. For example: We must think about Russia! We must think about the people! Therefore, we must pass an environmental protection law!

Antithesis (from the Greek antithesis - opposition) - opposition of concepts, images, thoughts. For example: What have you made of that France that I left in such a brilliant position? I left you peace, but I find war! I left you Italian millions, but I find predatory laws and poverty! I left you victories, but I find defeats!

Antonomasia (from the Greek antonomasia - renaming) is the replacement of a common noun in a statement with a proper name. For example: For a long time, jealous people have been called by the name of Othello, sensualists and woman-pleasers by the name of Don Juan.

Gradation (from the Latin gradation - gradual increase) is a stylistic figure consisting of such an arrangement of parts of a statement in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotional-expressive meaning, due to which an increase in the impression they produce is created. For example: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry… .

Inversion (from Latin inversio - turning over, rearranging) is the arrangement of the members of a sentence in a special order, violating the usual (direct) order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: Interesting book I saw it yesterday; He plays and howls like a young animal that has seen food from an iron cage.

A pun (from the French calembour) is a figure of speech consisting of a humorous use of the polysemy of a word or the sound similarity of different words. For example: Osip is hoarse, and Arkhip is hoarse.

Polyconjunction (polysyndeton) is a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, thereby emphasizing the role of each of them, creating unity of enumeration, and enhancing the expressiveness of speech. For example: The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity.

Oxymoron (from the Greek oxymoron, witty-stupid) is a stylistic figure consisting of a combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another. For example: a living corpse, the heat of cold numbers.

Paradox (from the Greek paradokos - unexpected, strange) is an opinion, a judgment that sharply diverges from the generally accepted one, but upon closer examination it is correct, at least in some conditions. For example: Mutual misunderstanding is the most suitable basis for marriage.

Paraphrase (periphrasis) (from the Greek periphrasis - descriptive expression, allegory) - a changed name of an object, phenomenon or person, replacing them with a description of essential features or an indication of them character traits. For example: the king of beasts (instead of a lion), being in the arms of Morpheus (instead of sleeping), the temple of Melpomene (instead of a theater).

Parcellation (new Latin parcellatio - division) is a figure of speech, a special division of a sentence in which the content of the utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a dividing pause. For example: And again. Gulliver. Costs. Slouching.

A period is a structurally organized rhythmic statement, consisting of two proportional parts - ascending and descending. For example:

The more often the Lyceum celebrates

Your holy anniversary

The more timid the old circle of friends

The family is embarrassed to be together,

The rarer it is; that's our holiday

In its joy it is darker;

The muffled is the ringing of health bowls,

And our songs are all the sadder.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not imply new information in the answer: the speaker asks essentially about something that he has already known for a long time; it is important for him that the listeners give themselves the same answer. For example: Who is not affected by novelty?

Syntactic parallelism is the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech (identical or similar arrangement of speech elements). For example:

In the blue sea

The waves are splashing.

In the blue sky

The stars are shining.

Silence is a deliberate interruption of a statement, adding emotionality, excitement to the speech and suggesting that the reader himself will guess what exactly remains unspoken. For example:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to irritate the geese...

(The ellipsis means “better keep quiet”)

Ellipsis (from the Greek elleipsis - omission, deficiency) is a stylistic figure that consists in the omission (in speech or text) of any implied member of a sentence (linguistic unit) and gives dynamism and liveliness to speech. For example: An order was given to him to the west, to her - in the other direction; Tanya – 5, and Valya – 3; My mother is a doctor.

Epiphora (from the Greek epiphora - addition) is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. For example:

This is the artist Altman,

A very old man.

In German it means Altmann -

A very old man.

10. Visual means of language. Figures.

Visual and expressive means of language- these are poetic figures of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning. The basis of all tropes (with the exception of metonymy) is a comparison, a juxtaposition of two phenomena with the aim of explaining one with the help of the other.

Lexical means

Antonyms – different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning ( good - evil, powerful - powerless). The contrast of antonyms in speech is a clear source of speech expression, establishing the emotionality of speech, and serves as a means of antithesis: he was weak body, but strong in spirit.

Contextual (or contextual) antonyms – These are words that are not contrasted in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - This is the main thing that distinguished this hero.

Hyperbole – a figurative expression that exaggerates an action, object, or phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression: Snow fell from the sky by the pounds.

Litota – understatement : a man with a fingernail. Used to enhance artistic impression.

Individual author's neologisms (occasionalisms) – due to their novelty, they allow you to create certain artistic effects, express the author’s view on a topic or problem: ... How can we ensure that our rights are not expanded at the expense of the rights of others?(A. Solzhenitsyn)

Synonyms – these are words related to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: Crush is love, friend is friend. Used Synonyms allow you to more fully express your thoughts using. To enhance the feature.

Contextual (or contextual) synonyms – words that are synonyms only in this text: Lomonosov is a genius - the beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)

Metaphor – hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. The basis of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.

In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands on what similarity the semantic connection between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based: There were, are and, I hope, there will always be more good people in the world than bad and evil people, otherwise there would be disharmony in the world, it would warp... capsize and sink. Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a type of metaphor.

Personification – one of the types of metaphor when a characteristic is transferred from a living object to an inanimate one. When personified, the described object is externally used by a person: The tree, bending towards me, stretched out thin hands. Even more often, actions that are permissible only to humans are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain spanked with bare feet along the garden paths.

Proverbs and sayings, used by the author, make speech figurative, apt, expressive.

Comparison – one of the means of expressive language that helps the author express his point of view, create entire artistic pictures, and give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparisons are usually joined by conjunctions: as, as if, as if, exactly, etc. but serves to figuratively describe the most diverse characteristics of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give exact description colors: Like the night his eyes are black.

A form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case is often found: Anxiety snake crawled into our hearts. There are comparisons that are included in a sentence using words: similar, similar, reminiscent: ...butterflies look like flowers.

Phraseologisms – These are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore they are important expressive language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and figurative characteristics of heroes, surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author’s attitude to events, to a person, etc.: people like my hero have spark of God. Phraseologisms have a stronger impact on the reader.

Epithet – a word that identifies in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or characteristics. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Anything can be an epithet meaningful word, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition of another: talkative magpie, fateful watch. peers greedily; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative meaning: half-asleep, tender, loving gazes.

Gradation – a stylistic figure, which implies the subsequent intensification or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of your family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world! The gradation can be ascending (strengthening the characteristic) and descending (weakening the characteristic).

Antithesis – a stylistic device that consists of a sharp contrast of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, and contrast phenomena. Serves as a way to express the author’s view of the described phenomena, images, etc.

Conversational vocabulary adds additional Expressive-emotional. Coloring (positive, negative, diminishing) can be given by humorous, ironic, familiarity to the subject.

Historicisms – words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts that they denoted (chain mail, coachman)

Archaisms- words that in modern times Rus. The language is replaced by other concepts. (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)

In the works of artists. Lit. They help to recreate the flavor of the era, are means speech characteristics, or can be used as a comic device.

Borrowing. Words - to create humor, nominative function, give national. The coloring brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is being described.

Stylistic figures – special turns of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of an utterance (for example, anaphora, epiphora, simploca, ellipse, amplification, antithesis, oxymoron, parcellation, parallelism, gradation, inversion, non-union, polyunion, chiasmus, silence, etc.) . Sometimes, stylistic figures include tropes, as well as unusual phrases and figures of speech that go beyond the linguistic norm (for example, solecism).

11. Gender of indeclinable nouns

Declension of names and surnames

12. Adjective. Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Adjective An adjective is an independent part of speech that denotes a non-procedural attribute of an object and answers the questions “which?”, “which?”, “which?”, “which?”, “whose?” and so on. In Russian, adjectives change according to gender, case and number, and can have a short form.

Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives

From most qualitative adjectives it is possible to form simple and complex comparative and superlative forms: dangerous– dangerous her – more (less ) dangerous; dangerous eish th – most dangerous - more dangerous all - most dangerous, nai dangerous to her shy.

Compound comparative form (e.g. more dangerous, more complex, taller, more beautiful) characterized as bookish; simple form (more dangerous, more difficult, higher, more beautiful) stylistically neutral. However, with the prefix By- it takes on a colloquial connotation, cf.: taller, prettier, stronger etc.

Forms with suffix -to her also characteristic of colloquial speech: fast her - faster, smarter her- smarter, dangerous her- more dangerous. Forms more beautiful, sweeter, worse, livelier, louder and other similar ones are colloquial in nature.

The connection is simple and complex shapes (stronger, faster, less dangerous etc.) is a violation of the stylistic norm.

The comparative degree of adjectives is used in speech to compare the same quality in different objects: No treasure more valuable than life. A drunk driver driving a car is no less dangerous than an armed bandit. As part of legal terms, it is used without comparison with another subject: less serious bodily harm, more lenient punishment.

Superlative forms are characterized by greater diversity in formation and use than comparative forms. The book character has a simple form (especially with the prefix nai – ), the complex form is used in all styles of speech. Wed: the most important – the most important, the brightest– the brightest, the strictest– the most strict. Note that simple superlatives are more expressive than complex superlatives. Complex forms made up of a simple comparative degree and a word everyone (most important, strictest of all, smartest of all etc.), have a colloquial tone.

The combination of simple and complex forms is contrary to the language norm: the most dangerous, the hardest. Necessary: most dangerous or the most dangerous, the hardest or the heaviest . Unfortunately, in recent years, in radio and television programs one can increasingly hear Vthe closest, shortest possible time; the most dangerous disease, the most important task, which violates the literary norm. Interestingly, in legal terms punishment below the minimum limit simple comparative and superlative forms are combined.

Synonymous forms of short adjectives

IN In some cases, it is difficult to use parallel forms of short adjectives. For example, it is correct: responsible or responsible? Sharp or sharp?

Options in the formation of the short form of masculine adjectives with suffixes -en And -enen usually observed in adjectives that have several consonants before the suffix –enne– , eg: lawsuit sstv new, naturally stv responsible, responsible tstv lenient, uninformed vstv new etc. The development of these forms is interesting. The more ancient form was with the suffix –en, it came from the Slavic language. Then there was a tendency to use forms with the suffix -enen, in recent decades, researchers have noted the predominance of forms with the suffix –en: yavstv en, meaningless en, properties en, ignorance en etc. It should be remembered that short forms with the suffix –en are the norm of literary speech, forms with a suffix -enen are perceived as outdated. But you need to distinguish between short forms responsible (short participle: responsibilities en for conducting the investigation, i.e. answers) and responsible (short adjective: om responsible, i.e. conscientious).

13. Numeral name. Variants of combinations of numerals with nouns. Declension of numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred.

Numeral– an independent part of speech that denotes the number, quantity and order of objects. Answers the questions: how much? which?

Numerals are divided into four lexico-grammatical categories: quantitative (two, fifty, two hundred, three hundred fifty one) And collective (both, two, five) - answer the question How many?, ordinal- answer the question which? (first, second, hundredth), fractional (one fifth, three whole, two sevenths). The composition of cardinal numerals includes definite-quantitative and indefinite-quantitative numerals. The first ones denote a certain number of units ( two, four, fifteen, one and a half hundred, two hundred), the second – an indefinite number of units; these include words few, a lot, a lot of, A little, as well as pronominal numerals some, How many, for some time, how much, so many.

The numeral both is used in combination with masculine and neuter nouns, as well as different genders: both brothers, both windows, both: brother and sister. The numeral both - only in combination with feminine nouns: both sisters, both doors. Both are numerals; both are not used with nouns that do not have a singular form. Incorrect: at both gates, at both points. We can say: at both gates, at two points.

The word pair is used in the meaning of two only with paired objects and is of a colloquial nature: a pair of stockings, socks, a pair of eyes, hands. Incorrect: a pair of coats (unpaired item), you need: two coats. The word couple also has the meaning of several and is found in colloquial speech: a couple of trifles, a couple of days, a couple of words. Can I ask you for a few words?

With a mixed number, the noun is governed by a fraction, i.e. the noun is placed in the genitive singular: 8.7 seconds; 41.3 quintals; 12.7 kilometers.

Compound numerals ending in two, three, four (22, 23, 44, 102, 104, etc.) do not combine with nouns that only have plural forms (day, scissors). The fact is that words such as day are combined not with quantitative, but with collective numerals (two, three), which cannot be included in a compound numeral. Incorrect: The campaign lasted twenty-two days. The campaign lasted twenty-two days. Correct options: The campaign lasted for twenty-two days (the entire construction is put in the gender case). The campaign lasted twenty-two days (the option with a synonym is less preferable).

Compound numerals for two, three, four, when combined with animate nouns in the accusative case, retain the form of the nominative case: receive twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers. This is the book version. Colloquial option: receive twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers.

The numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred in all cases, except for the nominative and accusative, are combined with the plural of the subsequent noun and have the corresponding forms one and a half, one and a half hundred: bought one and a half dozen apples - to one and a half dozen apples, one and a half meters - limit yourself to one and a half meters.

Declension of numerals “one and a half”, “one and a half hundred”

Numeral one and a half has two forms of the nominative case - one and a half(m.r. and s.r.) and one and a half(f.r.): one and a half liters, one and a half logs, one and a half lives. Declension of numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred(number, quantity of something equal to 150) is limited to only two case forms: one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred for nominative-accusative case and one and a half And one and a half hundred for all oblique cases without gender differences. Right: about one and a half days, one and a half hundred kilometers, A Not about one and a half days, one and a half days, one and a half hundred kilometers.

14. Pronoun. Features of the declension of personal pronouns combining them with prepositions.

Pronoun– an independent part of speech, which includes words indicating objects, signs, etc., but not naming them. In a sentence, pronouns can act as various parts of the sentence.

Groups of pronouns in relation to other parts of speech:

· noun pronouns (I, who, nothing);

· pronouns-adjectives (none, own);

· numeral pronouns (some, not at all).

Pronoun classes:

· personal (indicate a person or object): I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they;

· reflexive (indicates the attitude towards the character): oneself;

· possessive (indicate belonging to one of three persons): my, yours, yours;

· demonstrative (in general indicate objects, their quality or quantity): this, this, that;

· interrogatives (convey a question): who, which, whose;

· relative (in form they coincide with interrogative pronouns, but act as allied words): who, which;

· negative (indicate the absence of an object): no one, nothing;

· indefinite (indicate indefinite objects or their signs): someone's, someone;

· definitive (indicate a generalized attribute of an object): any, any.

In a sentence, a pronoun can be the same member of the sentence as the part of speech in which it is used:

· subject: I came home very tired.

· definition: I want to buy some book.

· addition: I want to ask her about this.

· circumstance: The boys went to her.

· Declension of pronouns- This is an inflection of pronouns by case, gender and number. Since in Russian pronouns are represented by groups of words with different grammatical features, the features of their declination are different.

· Most pronouns are inflected. Indeclinable exception words include possessive pronouns his, her, their and uncertain someone, something. Demonstrative pronoun that's how it is and interrogative what change only by numbers and genders (these are the rules, this is the decision, what are the questions, what is the plan).

· Features of the declension of pronouns in the Russian language with examples are given in the tables.

Declension of personal pronouns in Russian

In indirect cases, when used with prepositions, the prefix is ​​added to personal pronouns of the 3rd person n-. Prepositions with pronouns are written APART!

15. Verb. Features of the formation of some personal forms.

Verb- this is a word that denotes an action and answers the questions what it does, what it did, what it will do, etc. Verb is a part of speech that denotes an action or state of an object. ... In the indicative mood Verbs change according to tenses, that is, they can be present, future and past tense.

Formation of some personal forms

1. Verbs win, convince, find yourself, feel, wonder and some others belonging to the so-called insufficient verbs(i.e. verbs limited in the formation or use of personal forms) do not form the 1st person singular form of the present-future tense. If it is necessary to use these verbs in the indicated form, a descriptive construction is used, for example: I will be able to win, I want (strive) to convince, I can find myself, I will try to feel, I will not be weird.

Due to phonetic coincidence with forms from other verbs, such forms as “buzhu” (from make a fuss, Wed I wake you up from wake up), “hold” (from dare, Wed I'm holding from hold), “pushing” (from pummel, Wed I push from grieve) and some others.

Verbs kill, murmur form the lth person singular form I will kill, I will murmur.

2. Verbs recover, get sick of, get sick of form personal forms according to the first conjugation: I’ll get well, -eat, -eat; I’m tired of, -eat, -eat; I'm disgusted, -eat, -eat. Forms of these verbs I'll get better, -ish, -yat etc. (according to conjugation II) are colloquial in nature.

3. Verb rest on forms the indefinite form and the past tense ( was based) with suffix -And- (according to II conjugation); present tense forms and participles are formed according to the first conjugation ( is being built, is being built, is being built).

The same ratio of verb forms be ruffled (swayed; unsteady - unsteady, unshakable, unshakable).

Verb lay used only in the infinitive and in the past tense ( the fog was creeping in); personal forms are formed by I conjugation from an equal verb lay, For example: the fog spreads, the meadows spread over a vast expanse.

Verb honor in the 3rd person plural has equal forms honor - honor; Wed from Gorky: Both of them love her memory. – They are honored and obeyed by thousands like him.

4. Some verbs form double forms of the present tense, for example the verb rinse: rinses(without alternating the final consonants of the infinitive stem and the present tense stem) and rinses(with alternating consonants in the named forms).

First forms: rinses, splashes, drips, cackles, sways, purrs, waves, prowls etc. – are characteristic of a conversational style. Second forms: rinses, splashes, drips, cackles, sways, purrs, waves, prowls etc. – are inherent in the literary language. Wed. in fiction:

On the river... women are sitting, rinse (L. Tolstoy). – In the bright blue of the sky rinse banners(Pavlenko) (the use of the word in a figurative meaning in the second case does not affect its literary form);

Flock of seabirds sways on the waves(Goncharov). – Romantic ghosts of the past surround me, take possession of my soul, sway, lull, caress...(Korolenko);

Horse waves tail(Saltykov-Shchedrin). – There goes a gray-haired sorceress, shaggy waves sleeve(Derzhavin).

Along with the stylistic one, there is a semantic distinction between parallel forms.

Form splash - splashes means “to sprinkle, to sprinkle”: splashes water, splashes laundry; form splash - splash means “to scatter in drops, scatter drops, sprinkle with splashes”: dirt splashes, sparks splash, saliva splashes.

Form move – moves means “to move, push or drag something”: moves furniture; form move – moves along with the same value ( diesel locomotive moves carriages) has a figurative meaning “to encourage, to lead”: he is driven by a feeling of compassion. Wed. also verb forms move: things don’t move – time moves forward(the second version is book); Tired horses move with difficulty. – Familiar figures move, ordinary episodes, everyday scenes(both examples from Korolenko). The train is moving means “comes into motion”; the train is moving means “in motion.”

Form drip - drips has the meaning “to fall in drops, pour drop by drop”: sweat drips from the forehead, the nurse drops medicine into a glass; book version: rain drops; form drip - drip means “to leak, let liquid through”: roof caplet.

Form throw - throws has the meaning of “to sew, to sew with stitches, to sheathe a loop”: throws a jacket, throws a seam. Form throw– mosques means “throw, scatter, scatter”: mosquesthunder and lightning, throwing angry glances; Also: spawns; in the same meaning of “throw” in sports usage the form is used throws: throws hammer, discus, spear etc.

In common speech and in dialects there are forms clicks(instead of calls– from click), meows(from meow; literary form meows– from mew).

Forms are colloquial sprinkles, pinches(instead of sprinkles, pinches– from sprinkle, pinch).

5. Verbs milk, cut, water, hide in literary language form the imperative mood in -And : ...Drink me with alarm and swear words!(Block).

Some verbs with a prefix You- form equal forms of the imperative mood: stick it out - stick it out, put it out - put it out, straighten it out - straighten it out, rash it out - rash it out; the second options in each pair are bookish in nature.

Verbs that have before -it there is a combination of the infinitive st or a combination of two consonant sounds, the first of which is a smooth consonant R , also form equal forms: clean - clean, don't spoil - don't spoil, don't writhe - don't writhe, don't wrinkle - don't wrinkle. However, only forms in the plural are used -ite : clean it, don’t spoil it.

Forms notify - notify, enjoy - enjoy, cork - cork, uncork - uncork are also equal. However, the forms take a look, take it out, don't steal, put it down(in phraseological combination take it out and put it down) are colloquial.

The forms have a colloquial character go figure(instead of go),clip(instead of hug); Also go(instead of go)

Variants of species forms

1. Forms manage, confess, preach etc. are obsolete. Wed. modern to lead, to profess, to preach.

Use of the form organize(along with organize in the meaning of the imperfect form) is justified by the fact that in the past tense the verb organize only the perfect form has meaning (cf.: he organized a tourist song festival), therefore, to express the meaning of the imperfect form in the past tense, the form is necessary organized(cf.: annuallyhe organized tourist song festivals). For the same reason, the form is legitimate attacked(form attacked has the meaning of the perfect form).

2. Options for form types condition – condition associated with the peculiarities of the formation of the imperfective form through suffixes -yva-, -iva- : in some cases there is an alternation of vowels o–a in the root, and in others the root vowel O saved:

1) verbs requiring the indicated alternation: to procure - to procure, to swamp - to swamp, to freeze - to freeze, to build up - to build up, to touch - to touch, to process - to process, to ennoble - to ennoble, to master - to master, to challenge - to challenge, to honor - to honor, to assimilate - to assimilate and etc.;

2) verbs that preserve the root O : slam - slam, preoccupy - preoccupy, discredit - discredit, delay - defer, time - time, legitimize - legitimize, authorize - authorize etc. This also includes verbs that have O refers to the suffix -ov- , since the formation of species is associated with the alternation of letters in the root, and not in the suffix, for example: to rob - to rob, to commemorate - to commemorate, to enchant - to enchant, to complete - to complete;

3) verbs that allow both forms (book form - with O , colloquial – with A ): to suspect - to suspect, to determine - to determine, to concentrate - to concentrate, to manure - to respect, to agree - to agree and some others;

4) verbs forming imperfective forms with suffixes -yva-, -iva- (colloquial form) and with suffixes -and I- (book form): prepare - prepare, litter - litter, accumulate - accumulate, empty - empty, encourage - encourage, prepare - prepare, replace - replace, try on - try on, adapt - adapt, catch a cold - catch a cold, cut - cut and etc.;

5) verbs forming the imperfect form with a suffix -I- (book form): to improve - to improve, to familiarize - to familiarize, to formalize - to formalize, to legitimize - to legitimize(Also legitimize, see above), speed up – speed up and etc.

Non-prefixive forms of the imperfect form are also possible, paired with prefixed formations of the perfect form, for example: disturb - disturb, disgrace - disgrace, discredit - defame etc. The use of these forms is more preferable than forms with the suffix -willow- (disgrace, defame).

3. Among verbs like (with suffix -izova- and suffix -isirova- ) three groups can be distinguished:

a) verbs with suffix -izova- :

demoralize, mobilize, neutralize, normalize, paralyze, implement, stylize, centralize, electrify;

b) verbs with suffix -isirova- :

agonize, activate, militarize, hospitalize, democratize, idealize, ironize, canonize, Latinize, monopolize, moralize, municipalize, polemicize, signal, symbolize, utilize, vernalize;

c) verbs having both options:

vulcanize - vulcanize

harmonize – harmonize

colonize – colonize

crystallize – crystallize

legalize - legalize

localize – localize

modernize – modernize

pasteurize – pasteurize

popularize – popularize

rationalize - rationalize

secularize – secularize

stabilize – stabilize

standardize – standardize

terrorize – terrorize and some others.

In book and written speech, the second option is more common.

4. A conversational tone is inherent in the second option in pairs:

disdain - disdain; For example: Grandfather... didn’t disdain to make money on the side when he drove a cab(Gladkov);

see – see; For example: ...Wild Master I am in it[in the room] haven't seen(Turgenev);

smoke - smoke(meaning “to emit soot”); For example: OnLooking at you, the flies are dying and the lamps are starting to smoke(Chekhov);

climb – climb; For example: Climbed trees, destroyed bird nests(Saltykov-Shchedrin);

measure - measure; For example: Measure all the lines...(Bitter);

torment – ​​torment; For example: Why are you torturing me like this?(Dostoevsky);

lift - raise; For example: Gypsies...lifted them[horses] legs and tails, screaming, cursing...(Turgenev);

whistle - whistle; For example: The boy whistled shrilly...(Kuprin); in the meaning “to make a whistle through a mechanical device” only the verb is used whistle;

hear – hear; For example: - Have you heard, sir, about your misfortune? - asked the coachman(Garin-Mikhailovsky).

5. In some cases both forms are acceptable, for example: Busthis line runs every five minutes. – A bus runs on this line every five minutes.. The difference between both options is as follows: walks has the meaning “there and back”, i.e. it indicates movement not in one direction, but coming means “only there”, i.e. indicates movement in one direction.

6. The names of means of land mechanical and air transport are usually combined with the verb to go, for example: The bus goes along the new route; The train travels at a speed of 60 kilometers per hour; The tram goes to the park; The planes are coming(Also flying) in sequence. Word motorbike combines with verb drive, For example: The motorcycle was coming straight at us.

The names of means of transportation on water are combined as with a verb go, and with the verb swim, For example: Loaded barges go (float) down the river; A boat was walking (swimming) near the shore; Torpedo boats go in the wake column; Ships are sailing on the sea.

7. In pairs went out - went out, got wet - got wet, dried - dried out etc. in modern language the first variants are more often used (without the suffix -Well- ). Masculine forms of the past tense of verbs with a suffix -Well- are equal: lethargic - withered, rejected - rejected, resorted - resorted, terminated - terminated, refuted - refuted and etc.

Returnable and non-returnable forms

1. Type options a sail is white in the distance - a sail is white in the distance(with reflexive and non-reflexive forms of the verb, which have the same meaning “to be visible by one’s color, to stand out with it”) differ in that in the reflexive verb the specified feature is revealed less clearly and less persistently. Wed. Also: in the distance the forest turns black - in the distance the forest turns black, in the fog something turns blue - in the fog something turns blue, honey in a cup turns yellow - honey in a cup turns yellow etc. If there is a word in a sentence indicating the intensity of the manifestation of the attribute, the non-reflexive form is preferable, for example: young grass is brightly green.

In the meaning of “become white (green, red, black, etc.)” only the non-reflexive form is used, for example: strawberriesturns red in the sun, silver turns black over time, arctic fox fur turns yellow very quickly.

2. In pairs threaten - threaten, knock - knock and so on. reflexive verbs inherent value of greater intensity of action, interest in its result; compare: he knocked on the door - he knocked on the door to be opened. Stylistically, these forms differ in that the forms on -proper colloquial style, for example: One woman, from the threshold of her hut, threatened me with a grab(Turgenev).

3. In pairs circle - spin, splash - splash, decide - decide etc. the first (non-reflexive) forms are characterized as literary, the second - as colloquial; compare: Dasha decided to start an independent life as soon as possible(A N. Tolstoy). – Relegated to the rank of cook, Glafira decided to while away her life in the kitchen(Ch. Uspensky).

4. When using verbs in -xia one should take into account the possibility of their two meanings coinciding - passive and reflexive, which can give rise to ambiguity, for example: They're going here Foreign citizens lost in our city(do they come on their own or are they collected?). In such cases, an edit appropriate to the desired meaning is necessary; Wed: a) Foreign citizens come here...; b) Foreign citizens gather here...