Control work: Activities that contribute to a differentiated perception of color. The development of differentiation, dissection and detail of reflection in the microgenesis of acts of perception

Sensations and perceptions are processes of direct reflection of reality. You can feel and perceive those properties and objects of the external world that directly affect the analyzers. Each analyzer consists, as you know, of three parts: a peripheral receptor (eye, ear, skin, etc.), a nerve conductor, and a center in the cerebral cortex. The studies of Academician IP Pavlov and his school revealed the cortical nature of the processes of sensations and perceptions and fundamentally changed our ideas about the essence and development of these processes. If earlier visual perceptions considered as a mirror reflection of an object on the retina, similar to photography, now we consider the visual image as a complex of conditional connections, as some kind of dynamic stereotype that arises as a result of the analysis and synthesis of repeatedly recurring variable stimuli.

The child learns to look and see. What he can see with his bases is the result of a certain life experience. In the same way, the child's auditory perceptions are the result of previously developed conditioned connections: the child learns to distinguish and synthesize the sounds of speech, music, etc. The child's ear is not a tape recorder that records all the sounds in a row. Sharpening the Thought, we can say that the child generally hears not with the ear, but with the temporal region of the cerebral cortex, and what he hears depends on the quality of the conditioned connections formed up to this moment in this temporal region of the cortex. This is a very important position. general psychology must be well understood, since the everyday experience of an adult creates in him the illusion of the opposite character.

When we open our eyes, we see everything at once, but when we have normal hearing, we can hear everything. It seems that it has always been like this. This happens because the periods of learning to see, hear, in general, all types of perception are forgotten, do not give in to awareness. So, an adult, looking at the eyes of a baby, experiences the illusion that the baby also sees. Meanwhile, this is not so. A newborn baby cannot see or hear. His reactions to bright light and sound are defensive, unconditionally reflexive. Often they say - he sees, but does not understand. This is also incorrect. It does not see and does not hear until it learns to distinguish shapes, colors, sizes, contours, combinations of spots and tones, until it learns to distinguish sounds. In order for the infant to learn to distinguish the mother’s face from the foggy spots reflected in his eyes, and later the faces of his loved ones, differential conditioned connections must be developed in the occipital cortex of his brain, and then dynamic stereotypes, i.e., systems of such connections. The same should become the basis for distinguishing the soothing voice of the mother, as well as other sounds, smells, touches, etc. Sensations and perceptions are the activity of the first signal system(hereinafter also the second), which is based on the system conditioned reflexes.

A child, as you know, is born with only a small fund of unconditional congenital reflexes, and the first signaling system is formed in him in the first years of life and then improved.

Child psychology has large quantity experimental data relating to how a child in the first years of life learns to look and see, listen and hear, feel and perceive with all his analyzers and their aggregates. So, for example, the perception of space occurs due to the combined activity of the visual, motor and skin analyzers. Auditory, motor and interoceptive analyzers take part in the perception of time.

The child's eye is only gradually formed, visual acuity increases, etc. I. M. Sechenov formulated this idea a long time ago, saying that recognition is contained in every perception. This means that the perception of a face as a face, an apple as an apple, a song as a song presupposes the presence of prior experience.

The accumulation of a fund of conditioned reflexes underlies perception. In a normal child, this process is rapid, stormy. In children with the affected nervous system sensations and perceptions are formed slowly and with a large number of features and shortcomings.

The significance of this nuclear symptom of oligophrenia can hardly be overestimated. Sensations and perceptions are the first step in understanding the world around us. This stage remains important throughout all the years of life.

Slow, limited susceptibility, characteristic of mentally retarded children, has a huge impact on the entire subsequent course of their mental development.

The features of the perception and sensations of mentally retarded children have been studied in great detail by Soviet psychologists (I. M. Solovyov, K. I. Veresotskaya, M. M. Nudelman, E. M. Kudryavtseva).

Let us dwell only on the most significant results of these studies.

The first group of facts speaks of the slowness and narrowing of the visual perceptions of children. One of the fundamental studies that discovered a slow rate of visual perception in mentally retarded children was carried out by K. I. Veresotskaya. It consisted of the following. K. I. Veresotskaya suggested that the subjects recognize distinct, bright drawings, which depicted objects well known to children, for example, an apple, a table, a cat, a pencil, etc. The time of presentation of these pictures could be accurately measured using a special device - a tachistoscope. In the first series of experiments, it was very short - 22 milliseconds. A set of drawings was shown to three groups of subjects: 1) normal adults, 2) students of the 1st grade of a public school, and 3) students of the 1st grade of an auxiliary school. It turned out that with such a brief presentation, normal adults correctly recognized 72% of the Objects, students of the mass school - 57% of the objects, and students of the Special School did not have time to recognize a single object (although they could, of course, easily recognize these objects during prolonged examination).

The experiment was repeated with an increase in the time of displaying pictures almost twice - up to 42 milliseconds. It turned out that this time was quite enough for adults to correctly recognize all the presented images. Pupils of the mainstream school learned almost all the subjects (95%), while pupils of the auxiliary school learned only a little more than half of the subjects (55%).

These experiments convincingly proved that the rate of visual perception in mentally retarded children is slowed down. It seems very probable that mentally retarded children are slow in all other types of perceptions.

The slowness of the pace of perception is combined in mentally retarded children with a significant narrowing of the volume of perceived material. Research by M. M. Nudelman showed that mentally retarded children "saw" fewer objects in the same urban landscape seen through a window than normal children. This gives I. M. Solovyov reason to say that a multi-subject area of ​​reality turns out to be of little subject matter for the mentally retarded.

This weakness of the review is explained by the peculiarities of the movement of the gaze. What normal children see immediately, oligophrenics see consistently, writes I. M. Solovyov. Mentally retarded child, examining the surroundings or the street along which he is walking, notices less, sees less than his peers - a normal child. The narrowness of perception prevents a mentally retarded child from navigating in a new area in an unusual situation.

Where a normal child, surveying everything that happens, immediately highlights the main thing and orients himself in the situation, a mentally retarded child cannot grasp the meaning of what is happening for a long time and often turns out to be disoriented. I. M. Solovyov notes that when reviewing reality, oligophrenics do not see well the connections and relationships between objects.

Studies by E. A. Evlakhova showed that mentally retarded children do not distinguish the facial expressions of people depicted in the pictures. General understanding plot pictures and landscapes, or, as they say, "reading" pictures, presents a significant difficulty for mentally retarded children: they do not understand perspectives, do not distinguish between chiaroscuro, partial overlaps, etc.

These facts lead us to the second essential feature of the sensations and perceptions of mentally retarded children, namely, to their pronounced undifferentiation.

The data of many experimental studies indicate that mentally retarded children do not distinguish similar objects when they are recognized. So, for example, according to E. M. Kudryavtseva, students of the 1st grade of an auxiliary school mistake a squirrel for a cat, a compass for a watch, etc.

An experimental study by Zh. I. Shif was devoted to the study of how mentally retarded children distinguish colors and their shades. The study showed that under conditions in which normal children group only similar colors into one group, mentally retarded children group many slightly similar shades into one and the same group. When recognizing objects (the study of M. M. Nudelman), mentally retarded children considered such objects to be the same, which in fact were not the same. They did not notice those small differences, the recognition of which was available to their normal peers.

I. M. Solovyov, who distinguishes between the concepts of "nonspecific recognition of an object" and "specific recognition of an object," found in mentally retarded children pronounced difficulties in carrying out specific recognition if necessary. This means that when recognizing, it is easier for them to attribute the perceived object to the category of the genus than to the category of the species. For example, it is easier for them to see in a person who enters the yard just an uncle, and not a neighbor, a postman or a gardener. These children refer to squares and triangles, and rectangles, and rhombuses, as these are figures with corners.

Finally, the last, most pronounced feature of the perception of mentally retarded children is the inactivity of this mental process. Looking at some object, a mentally retarded child does not show a desire to examine it in all its details, to understand all its properties. He is content with the most general recognition of the subject. So, for example, when a mentally retarded child is shown a pencil and asked:

"What it is?" - he can answer that it is a pencil, and turn away from it, considering the question settled; in response to the same question, his peer from a public school will gladly tell you that it is a red, faceted, thick, sharpened pencil for the first time.

Insufficient activity in the perception of mentally retarded children was especially clearly revealed in the experiments of K. I. Veresotskaya. K. I. Veresotskaya showed pictures to the children. Some of them were shown to children in the usual position, others (mixed) - rotated by 90° or 180°. Such inverted images were correctly recognized by students of the mass school. The students of the auxiliary school, however, either could not recognize these images, or mistook them for something other than what they really were. Mentally retarded children lacked the activity of perception that is necessary for mental recognition of the position of an object in space, for its mental “turning over”. They very often recognized in the picture shown to them "upside down", some other object, supposedly in the usual, correct position in space. These facts testify to the insufficient activity of the perception of mentally retarded children.

Also of interest are studies complex shapes perception. So, in the study of E. S. Bain, the well-known phenomenon in psychology of the constancy of perception (preservation of the perception of the size of objects at different distances from the eyes) in mentally retarded children was studied. It turned out that although this regularity, i.e., the constancy of perception, is basically preserved, it is still much less than that of normal peers. This lack of constancy prevents children from being well oriented in the spatial arrangement of objects. about the same violation. difficult perception also evidenced by the data of K. I. Veresotskaya, proving that mentally retarded children do not perceive the depth of the images in the pictures enough.

The inactive nature of perception is also evidenced by the inability of the mentally retarded to peer, search for and find any objects, selectively consider any part of the surrounding world, distracting from the currently unnecessary bright and attractive aspects of the perceived.

Considering plot picture, they often misinterpret it, guided by the first random impression. The ability for active, critical examination and analysis of the content of the situation is developed in them with difficulty. When learning to read, children often experience bad habit Guess the meaning of a word from several letters.

Unfortunately, despite great importance different types perceptions for the subsequent mental development of the child, only visual perceptions have been studied so far. Researchers have some information about tactile perceptions; It has been established that mentally retarded schoolchildren identify voluminous and contoured objects with the help of their palpation much worse than students of a public school. I. M. Solovyov quite rightly notes the role of tactile perceptions in the process of labor training.

But no less important role in labor training, as well as in the general mental development of students, belongs to other types of perceptions, for example, kinesthetic. This, for example, is the perception of the position of one's body in space. IP Pavlov called these kinesthetic, or proprioceptive, perceptions the work of the motor analyzer. Indeed, to ensure the accuracy of movements, it is necessary to analyze the resistance of surrounding objects, which must be overcome by one or another muscular effort. Due to the inaccuracy of proprioceptive sensations, the movements that a mentally retarded child produces are characterized by poor coordination. His movements are unnecessarily sweeping, clumsy.

The non-differentiation of muscle sensations revealed itself even in the study of oligophrenics by the installation method of D. N. Uznadze; it turned out that a large difference between the balls is necessary for the appearance of the setup.

A very important role in the development of the psyche is played by auditory perceptions, which are closely and directly related to the development of speech. If differential conditioned connections in the area of ​​the auditory analyzer are formed slowly, then this leads to a delay in the formation of speech. This, in turn, causes mental retardation. It can be considered indisputable that in all children with an inferior nervous system the ability to distinguish speech sounds arises with difficulty and delay. Among the children who have suffered brain damage, there are those in whom the auditory analyzer has suffered especially badly. Such children may in some respects give the impression of being mentally retarded. In these cases, it is necessary to investigate the state of auditory perceptions using appropriate techniques. Such a study will make it possible to separate genuine mental retardation from secondary mental retardation due to a defect in auditory perceptions.

The state of auditory perception has a significant impact not only on the development of speech. AT Everyday life and in labor, a person constantly and imperceptibly uses the data of auditory perceptions. So, for example, by sound, he finds the object that he dropped, learns about the actions of other people or animals, determines the health of the machine on which he works, etc.

If all this complex world sounds remains inaccessible to mentally retarded children, it is not surprising that they are poorly oriented in the environment.

Not less than important role orientation is played by perceptions of time and space.

If we imagine that all these entrance "gates" through which the influences of the external world must penetrate into the consciousness of the child and form it, are narrow and difficult to pass, if the outlines of the external world appear to the child blurry, vague and only a little breaks in, is fixed in his ideas. , - the origin of his mental deficiency becomes clear.

The thought of L. S. Vygotsky about primary (nuclear) and secondary symptoms becomes clear mental retardation. It is the bad sensations and perceptions that turn out to be those nuclear symptoms that slow down, delay the development of higher mental processes, in particular thinking.

All indicated deficiencies and features of sensations and perceptions are smoothed out and compensated in the process of teaching and educating mentally retarded children in special school. According to K. I. Veresotskaya, the pace of visual perception changes from class to class. With the same duration of showing objects, 3rd grade students of a special school recognize objects many times faster than 1st grade students.

In the same way, comparative experimental study and other types and aspects of sensations and perceptions. In particular, a comparative study of color discrimination, visual acuity, completeness of vision, specific recognition, recognition of objects presented in an unusual position was carried out. All these multifaceted studies consistently showed that as children study at school, from class to class, improvement, development of sensations and perceptions takes place.

The development of sensations and perceptions can occur spontaneously due to the gradual restoration of higher nervous activity. This makes them more mobile and stronger. nervous processes, accelerates the pace and accuracy of sensations and perceptions. The development of sensations and perceptions can occur under the influence of the formation of higher mental functions.

Most of all, the development of all mental processes is promoted by the assimilation school curriculum. At the same time, the teacher must remember that extracurricular work also contributes to this, in particular the organization of outdoor and board games, excursions, hikes, and musical evenings. Disabled children can be taught to listen and emotionally perceive music. During walks in the forest, the teacher should teach children to listen to the birds singing and the rustle of leaves; during excursions, teach children to examine and analyze various objects. Looking at pictures under the guidance of a teacher, reading books, children also improve their sensations and perceptions.

Enriching the life experience of children, expanding the range of their ideas and knowledge are the main means of improving the quality of perceptions and sensations.

When developing sensations and perceptions in mentally retarded children, the teacher must remember that this is not an end in itself, but a means to facilitate the development of their thinking. In the past, there was a whole trend in oligophrenopedagogy, which considered the task of all the first grades of the auxiliary school to improve the quality of the sensory sphere of mentally retarded children. Numerous exercises have been developed aimed at improving, clarifying the perceptions and sensations of children. The exercises were helpful, but the overall direction was wrong. In interesting pilot study V. G. Petrova shows how you can use practical actions students to develop their thinking. In various series of psychological and pedagogical experiments, V. G. Petrova convincingly showed that if children, while studying new material, not only visually observe objects, but also perform various actions with these objects, the quality of their ideas, knowledge and judgments about the properties increases. these items.

The study by V. G. Petrova, which will be discussed below, indicates important and real ways of enriching the sensory experience of students in an auxiliary school, which is necessary for the development of their thinking.

The ability of the child to successfully engage in the process schooling largely depends on the level of development of his perception, or sensory development.
Perception is the foundation cognitive activity Therefore, the normal mental development of a child is impossible without relying on full perception.
As a rule, children entering school have a sufficient level of sensory culture1. They have quite full views about sensory standards. Sensory standards are generally accepted patterns created by human culture. external properties items. So, for visual perception, sensory color standards have been developed - chromatic colors - 7 primary colors of the spectrum and their shades; achromatic colors - white, gray, black; form standards - geometric shapes; standards of greatness - metric system measures. In the field of auditory perception, the standards are pitch relations, phonemes mother tongue. Corresponding standards exist in gustatory, olfactory perception.
To the end before school age the child can use sensory standards as a kind of unit
1 Wind L.A. and others. Education of the child's sensory culture. - M., 1988. measurements, yardsticks in assessing the various properties of surrounding objects. He distinguishes colors, shapes, size of objects, their location in space; can correctly name the colors and shapes of objects, correctly correlate them in size; knows how to depict basic shapes, paint the image in a given color.
Developed perception is of fundamental importance for the assimilation of school disciplines. Thus, the formation of elementary mathematical representations presupposes knowledge geometric shapes, the ability to compare in size. For literacy (primary writing and reading skills) huge role plays phonemic awareness to differentiate between sounds mother tongue, as well as the ability to accurately visually perceive the styles of letters. For example, the replacement of letters or numbers that are similar in spelling (i - n, 9 and 6, etc.), which is sometimes found in children, may be due to deficiencies in the development of visual perception. Lessons of natural history, drawing, labor, physical education also require a developed perception.
Psychological studies show that by the beginning of primary school age, the perception of children, despite its great opportunities, is still very imperfect. This is due to the fact that up to about 7 years of age, the perception of the child is global in nature: in a complex figure, the child perceives only the impression of the whole, without analyzing the parts, without synthesizing their relationships. According to J. Piaget, the child wants to see everything at once.
The weak differentiation of perception at the beginning of primary school age is also manifested in the fact that children, just as in preschool age, highlight when viewing objects the most striking, conspicuous properties. Recall that the previously described phenomena of J. Piaget are due to the dominance in the perception of individual features, without taking into account and correlating them with the rest.
The improvement of children's perception occurs along the path of development of the child's perceptual activity. Perceptual activity involves a purposeful, systematic study of a perceived object in order to isolate and analyze its most significant features and build a holistic image on this basis. So, when visually perceiving an object or its image, the eye makes numerous exploratory movements along the contour of the figure in question, fixing the most remarkable parts important for its identification.
Studies show that perceptual actions develop with age: in particular, children 9-10 years old are better at exploring figures, making connections between parts of the image, and in general, they look more accurately and adequately than children 5-6 years old1.
Higher purposefulness, controllability of perception in primary school age is due to the fact that under the influence developing thinking"perception becomes thinking." This is what allows the child to successfully analyze the various properties of objects and compare them with each other (analyzing perception).
In order for younger students to more accurately analyze the qualities of perceived objects, they must be specially trained in observation. As noted by L.F. Obukhov, “young teachers often underestimate the difficulties that a child experiences when perceiving a new object. It is necessary to teach children to consider an object, it is necessary to guide perception. To do this, the child needs to create a preliminary idea, a preliminary search image so that the child can see what he needs. Examples of this are simple, they have been developed over thousands of years: it is necessary to lead the child's gaze with a pointer. It is not enough to have visual material, you need to teach him to see.
With appropriate training, by the end of primary school age, a synthesizing perception appears, which allows (based on the intellect) to establish connections between the elements of the perceived. At this stage in the development of perception, the child is able not only to give an accurate, complete description of the image (for example, a picture), but also to supplement it with an explanation of the depicted event or phenomenon.
The problem of managing perception in primary school age is directly related to the issue of visibility in teaching. The principle of visibility is one of the main primary school. In general, it is adequate to the peculiarities of mental development junior schoolchildren, whose thinking, especially at the first stages of learning, has a predominantly visual-figurative character
1 See: Obukhova L.F. Jean Piaget's concept: pros and cons. - M., 1981. 1 Obukhova L.F. Child (age) psychology. - M., 1996. - S. 281.ter and relies on the perception of specific features of objects.
However, the paradox is that visibility educational material can not only help, but also hinder the process of mastering knowledge, hinder the possibility of isolating a learning task, mastering mental actions.
There are at least two functions of visual material in the educational process:
1) enrich the impressions of students, expand their sensory experience, make more vivid, concrete, colorful and accurate ideas about an insufficiently known range of phenomena (demonstration of photographs and films about wildlife, historical events etc.);
2) solve a specific pedagogical problem (when teaching counting, in Russian language lessons, etc.).
It is in the second case that there is a possibility that visual material will not act as a support for students, a means for performing the necessary mental actions, but will be perceived by them directly as an independent object of perception and mental activity.
This is well illustrated by the example given by A.N. Leontiev. For a mathematics lesson, the teacher carefully prepared tables that were supposed to serve as a guide when studying numbers and operations with quantities within a dozen in grade 1. These tables differed not in the principle of construction, but in the thoroughness of execution and the nature of the objects depicted on them. So, on one table tanks and anti-aircraft guns were depicted, which, according to the teacher's intention, made this manual interesting, easily attracting the attention of students, as concrete and vital as possible (it happened during the Great Patriotic War).
Nevertheless, from a psychological point of view, this wonderfully executed manual turned out to be not quite competent, since it could not provide a solution to that problem. pedagogical task, which the teacher set - to teach children to count. Brightly colored, “almost like real” tanks interested children much more than counting operations. Counting requires abstract action, abstraction from subject content, and this is all the more difficult the richer it is. As A.N. Leontiev noted, “it is psychologically easier for a child to count uninteresting pencils than to count interesting tanks. When the child is distracted from the formal quantitative trait other, meaningful features of the same objects, then it is even more difficult to master his activity than when he is distracted by something extraneous, when, for example, he simply looks out the window, here you can demand that he look at the blackboard; in the first case, all his attention is focused on the allowance, but in his mind not the quantities, not their ratio, but military images; being outwardly turned to the same as the teacher, inwardly he goes, however, not after him, but after the subject content depicted on the table.
Thus, when using visual material, it is necessary to correlate its content and presentation form with a specific pedagogical task.
5.2. Memory development
At primary school age, memory, like all others mental processes undergoes significant changes due to qualitative transformations of thinking. The essence of these changes is that the child's memory gradually acquires the features of arbitrariness, becoming consciously regulated and mediated. “Memory at this age becomes thinking”2.
The transformation of the mnemonic function is due to a significant increase in the requirements for its efficiency, high level which is necessary when performing various mnemonic tasks (memorization tasks) that arise during learning activities. Now the child must memorize a lot: memorize the material literally, be able to retell it close to the text or in his own words, and in addition, remember what has been learned and be able to reproduce it through long time. A child's inability to memorize affects his learning activities and ultimately influences his attitude towards learning and school.
First-graders (as well as preschoolers) have a well-developed involuntary memory, fixing bright, emotionally rich for the child information and events of his life. However, not all of what comes
1 Leontiev A.N. Psychological issues conscious teaching // Selected psychological works. -M., 1983. -T. 1. -S. 358-359.
2 Elkonin D.B. Selected psychological works. - M., 1989. - P. 56. It is interesting and attractive for a first-grader to memorize at school. Therefore, direct, emotional memory is no longer sufficient.
There is no doubt that the child's interest in schoolwork, his active position, high cognitive motivation are necessary conditions for the development of memory. This is an irrefutable fact. However, the assertion seems debatable that for the development of a child’s memory, not only and not so much special memorization exercises are useful, but the formation of interest in knowledge, in individual academic subjects developing a positive relationship with them. Practice shows that interest in learning alone is not enough for the development arbitrary memory as the highest mental function.
Improving memory in primary school age is primarily due to the development in the course of educational activities various ways and memorization strategies related to the organization and semantic processing of the memorized material. Reliance on thinking, the use of various methods and means of memorization (grouping material, understanding the connections of its various parts, drawing up a plan, etc.) turn the memory of a younger student into a true higher mental function conscious, mediated, arbitrary. The memory of the child from the immediate and emotional becomes logical, semantic.
Unfortunately, in the practice of school education, sufficient attention is not paid to the formation of adequate, rational techniques and methods of memorization in younger students. Without special purposeful work memorization techniques develop spontaneously and often turn out to be unproductive. I
The ability of children of primary school age to voluntary memorization is not the same throughout their education in elementary school and differs significantly among students in grades 1-2 and 3-4. So, for children of 7-8 years old, “situations are typical when it is much easier to remember without using any means than to remember, comprehending and organizing the material ... Subjects of this age to the questions “How did you remember? What did you think about in the process of memorizing?" etc. most often they answer: "I just memorized that's all." This is also reflected in the productive side of memory ... For younger students, it is easier to fulfill the “remember” setting than the “remember with the help of something” setting”1.
As it gets more complicated learning tasks the “just remember” attitude ceases to justify itself, and this forces the child to look for ways to organize memory. Most often, this technique is repeated repetition - a universal method that provides mechanical memorization.
AT lower grades, where the student is required only to simply reproduce a small amount of material, this method of memorization allows you to cope with study load. But often it remains the only one for schoolchildren throughout the entire period of schooling. This is primarily due to the fact that at primary school age the child did not master the techniques of semantic memorization, his logical memory remained insufficiently formed.
basis logical memory is the use thought processes as a support, a means of memory. Such memory is based on understanding. In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the statement of L.N. Tolstoy: "Knowledge is only knowledge when it is acquired by the efforts of thought, and not by memory alone."
As mental methods of memorization, semantic correlation, classification, selection of semantic supports and drawing up a plan, etc. can be used.
Special studies aimed at studying the possibilities of forming these techniques in younger students show that teaching a mnemonic technique, which is based on a mental action, should include two stages: a) the formation of the mental action; b) using it as a mnemonic device, i.e. memory means. Thus, before using, for example, the method of classification for memorizing material, it is necessary to master classification as an independent mental action.
The process of development of logical memory in younger schoolchildren should be specially organized, since in the vast majority of children of this age they are independent.
1 Cognitive processes and abilities in learning. - M, 1990. -S. 78.
2 See: The development of logical memory in children / Under. ed. A.A. Smirnova. -M., 1976. effectively (without special education) do not use the methods of semantic processing of the material and, for the purpose of memorization, resort to a tried and tested means - repetition. But even having successfully mastered the methods of semantic analysis and memorization in the course of training, children do not immediately come to their application in educational activities.
At different stages of primary school age, there is a dynamic in the attitude of students to the methods of semantic memorization they have acquired: if second-graders do not yet have a need to use them on their own, then by the end of primary school, children themselves begin to turn to new ways of memorizing when working with educational material.
In the development of arbitrary memory of younger schoolchildren, it is necessary to single out one more aspect related to the mastery at this age of sign and symbolic means of memorization, primarily written speech and drawing. As they master written speech (by grade 3), children also master mediated memorization, using such speech as a symbolic means. However, even this process among younger schoolchildren “occurs spontaneously, uncontrollably, just at that crucial stage when the mechanisms freeform memorization and remembrance.
Formation of written there is talk more effective if you need not just to reproduce the text, but to build a context. Therefore, in order to master written speech, one must not retell texts, but compose. At the same time, the most adequate type of word creation for children is the composition of fairy tales2.
Primary school age is sensitive for the formation of higher forms random memorization Therefore, purposeful developmental work on mastering mnemonic activity is the most effective during this period. An important condition for it is to take into account the individual characteristics of the child's memory: its volume, modality (visual, auditory, motor), etc. But regardless of this, each student must learn the basic rule effective memorization: in order to remember the material correctly and reliably, it is necessary to actively work with it and organize it in some way.
1 Lyaudis V.Ya. Memory in the process of development. - M., 1976. - S. 205.
2 See: Rodari J. Grammar of fantasy. - M., 1990. It is advisable to inform younger students about the various techniques and methods of memorization and help in mastering those that will be most effective for each child.
The materials necessary for diagnosing memory and conducting developmental classes can be found in the specialized literature1.
5.3. Development of attention
In working with younger students, the problem of attention is the most relevant. At school and at home, there are constant complaints about the "inattention", "lack of concentration", "distractibility" of the child. Most often, such a characteristic is given to children aged 6-7, i.e. first graders. Indeed, their attention is still poorly organized, has a small volume, is poorly distributed, and unstable, which is largely due to the insufficient maturity of the neurophysiological mechanisms that ensure the processes of attention.
During the primary school age, significant changes occur in the development of attention, there is an intensive development of all its properties: the volume of attention increases especially sharply (by 2.1 times), its stability increases, switching and distribution skills develop. However, only by the age of 9-10 do children become able to maintain and carry out an arbitrarily set program of actions for a sufficiently long time.
Well-developed properties of attention and its organization are factors that directly determine the success of education in primary school age. As a rule, well-performing students have the best indicators of attention development. At the same time, special studies show that different properties of attention make an unequal “contribution” to the success of learning in different ways. school subjects. So, when mastering mathematics, the leading role belongs to the amount of attention; the success of mastering the Russian language
"See: Zhitnikova L.M. Teach children to remember. - M., 1985; Yakovleva E.L. Diagnosis and correction of attention and memory of schoolchildren // Markova A.K., Lidere A.G., Yakovleva E.L. Diagnosis and correction of mental development at school and preschool age. - Petrozavodsk, 1992; Matyugin I.Yu. Tactile memory. - M., 1991; Matyugin I.Yu., Chakaberia E.N. Visual memory. - M., 1992. And so on with the accuracy of the distribution of attention, and learning to read - with the stability of attention.From this, a natural conclusion suggests itself: by developing various properties of attention, it is possible to improve the performance of schoolchildren in various academic subjects.
The difficulty, however, lies in the fact that different properties of attention lend themselves to development to an unequal degree. The least affected by training is the amount of attention, it is individual, at the same time, the properties of distribution and stability can and should be trained to prevent their spontaneous development1.
The success of attention training is also largely determined by individual typological characteristics, in particular, the properties of higher nervous activity. It has been established that different combinations of the properties of the nervous system can promote or, on the contrary, hinder the optimal development of attention characteristics. In particular, people with a strong and mobile nervous system have a stable, easily distributed and switchable attention. For persons with an inert and weak nervous system, unstable, poorly distributed and switched attention is more characteristic. With the combination of inertia and force, the stability indicators increase, the switching and distribution properties reach an average efficiency2. Thus, it must be borne in mind that the individual typological characteristics of each particular child make it possible to train his attention only within certain limits.
However, relatively underdevelopment properties of attention is not a factor of fatal inattention, since a vital role in the successful implementation of any activity belongs to the organization of attention: the skill of managing one's own attention, the ability to maintain it at the proper level, to flexibly operate its properties, depending on the specifics of the activity performed. "And with objectively weak properties attention, the student can master it well. In these cases, however, ... management comes down mainly to a constantly renewed effort to maintain its scattered attention at the proper level, as well as to more or less successful self-control.
1 See: Ermolaev O.Yu. etc. Attention of a schoolboy. - M., 1987.
2 Ibid. Another in its essence should be the organization of the attention of students with well-developed properties. The main thing that distinguishes such students is the ability to adapt their attention to the specifics of the task being performed, flexibly operating with its individual properties. They are equal high development allows you to activate one or another property depending on the specific features of the situation.
The inattention of younger students is one of the most common causes of reduced academic performance. Errors "due to inattention" in written work and during reading are the most offensive for children. In addition, they are the subject of reproaches and dissatisfaction on the part of teachers and parents.
As a rule, the presence of a significant number of such errors in first-graders can be explained by the influence of many factors at once: age-related features of development (immaturity of neurophysiological mechanisms), initial stage in mastering the skills of organizing educational activities and other reasons associated with the period of adaptation to the new conditions of the school. Therefore, in the first grades, classes on the development of attention are recommended to be carried out primarily as preventive ones, aimed at increasing the efficiency of the functioning of attention in all children. At the subsequent stages of education (grades 2-4), when the difficulties of the adaptation period are overcome, the importance of such work, of course, does not decrease. But along with it, there is a need to organize special classes with children who are particularly inattentive.
One of effective ways the formation of attention is a method developed within the framework of the concept of the phased formation of mental actions1. According to this approach, attention is understood as an ideal, internalized and automated act of control. It is precisely such actions that turn out to be unformed among inattentive schoolchildren.
Classes on the formation of attention are held as training in attentive writing and are based on the material of working with texts containing different types errors "by inattention": substitution or omission of words in a sentence, substitution or omission of letters in a word, continuous spelling prepositional words, etc.
1 See: Ermolaev O.Yu. etc. Attention of a schoolboy. - M., 1987. - S. 69. As studies show, the presence of a sample text with which it is necessary to compare an erroneous text is not in itself sufficient condition for the exact performance of tasks for detecting errors, since inattentive children do not know how to compare text with a sample, they do not know how to check. That is why all the teacher's calls to "check your work" turn out to be ineffective.
One of the reasons for this is the orientation of children to the general meaning of the text or word and the neglect of particulars. To overcome global perception and form control over the text, children were taught to read with elements against the background of understanding the meaning of the whole. Here is how P.Ya. Galperin this main and most time-consuming stage of work: “Children were offered to read single word(to establish its meaning), and then divide it into syllables and, reading each syllable, separately check whether it corresponds to the word as a whole.
The most different words(and difficult, and easy, and medium in difficulty). At first, the syllables were separated by a vertical pencil line, then the lines were not put, but the syllables were pronounced with a clear separation (voice) and successively checked. The sound division of syllables became shorter and shorter and soon reduced to stresses on individual syllables. After that, the word was read and checked by syllables to oneself (“the first one is correct, the second one is not, it is omitted here ... rearranged ...”). Only at the last stage did we proceed to the fact that the child read the whole word to himself and gave him overall score(right or wrong; and if wrong, explain why). After that, the transition to reading the entire phrase with its assessment, and then the entire paragraph (with the same assessment) was not difficult.
An important point the process of forming attention is the child's work with a special card on which the "rules" of verification are written, i.e. order of operations when checking the text. The presence of such a card is a necessary material support for mastering the full-fledged action of control. As the internalization and curtailment of the control action, the obligatory use of such a card disappears.
1 See: Galperin P.Ya., Kabylnitskaya S.L. Experimental formation of attention. - M., 1974. To generalize the formed control action, it was then worked out on a wider material (pictures, patterns, sets of letters and numbers). After that, when creating special conditions control was transferred from the situation of experimental learning to the actual practice of learning activities. Thus, the method of stage-by-stage formation makes it possible to obtain a full-fledged control action, i.e. generate attention.
As already noted, the main reason for inattentive writing and reading among younger students is often the inability to analyze specific units of material, the desire to quickly read the meaning of a word without noticing the peculiarities of its spelling. One of the methods for overcoming such an attitude is to change the position, the role of the child when checking the completed task. In this case, children are invited to read what is written aloud, as if it was written by “another boy or girl”, “a poorly trained puppy”. When working with inattentive schoolchildren, the development of individual properties of attention is of great importance. To conduct classes, a teacher or psychologist can use the following types assignments:
1. Development of concentration of attention. The main type of exercise is proofreading tasks, in which the child is asked to find and cross out certain letters in printed text. Such exercises allow the child to feel what it means to "be attentive" and develop a state of inner concentration. This work should be carried out daily (5 minutes a day) for 2-4 months. It is also recommended to use tasks that require the selection of features of objects and phenomena (comparison technique); exercises based on the principle of exact reproduction of any pattern (a sequence of letters, numbers, geometric patterns, movements, etc.); assignments by type: “mixed lines”, search for hidden figures, etc.
2. Increased attention span and short term memory. The exercises are based on memorizing the number and order of a number of objects presented for a few seconds. As you master the exercise, the number of objects gradually increases.
3. Training the distribution of attention. The basic principle of the exercises: the child is offered the simultaneous
1 See: Galperin P.Ya. Gradual formation as a method psychological research// Galperin P.Ya., Zaporozhets A.V., Karpova S.N. Actual problems age psychology. - M., 1978. - S. 97 -98. Completion of two multidirectional tasks (for example, reading a story and counting the strokes of a pencil on the table, performing a proofreading task and listening to a record of a fairy tale, etc.). At the end of the exercise (after 10-15 minutes), the effectiveness of each task is determined.
4. Development of the skill of switching attention. Performing proofreading tasks with alternating rules for crossing out letters.
Detailed programs for the diagnosis and development of attention in younger schoolchildren are presented in the works of E.I. Kikoin, S.S. Levitina, E.L. Yakovleva and others1
Questions and tasks
1. What are the features of the development of cognitive processes (perception, memory, attention) in primary school age?
2. What qualitative transformations of the cognitive sphere take place during the primary school age? What are they due to?
3. How does the type of school education affect the development of the cognitive sphere of younger students?
4. Why is it necessary to develop the imagination of schoolchildren?
5. What is the specificity of the use of visual material in teaching children in elementary school?

Slowness and narrowness of perceptions. Review features. Small differentiation of sensations and perception. Features of perception of pictures. The development of perceptions.

Sensations and perceptions are processes of direct reflection of reality. You can feel and perceive those properties and objects of the external world that directly affect the analyzers. Each analyzer consists, as you know, of three parts: a peripheral receptor (eye, ear, skin, etc.), a nerve conductor, and a center in the cerebral cortex. The studies of Academician IP Pavlov and his school revealed the cortical nature of the processes of sensations and perceptions and fundamentally changed our ideas about the essence and development of these processes. If earlier visual perceptions were considered as a mirror reflection of an object on the retina, similar to photography, now we consider a visual image as a complex of conditional connections, as some kind of dynamic stereotype that arises as a result of analysis and synthesis of repeatedly recurring variable stimuli.

The child learns to look and see. What he can see with his own eyes is the result of a certain life experience. In the same way, the child's auditory perceptions are the result of previously developed conditioned connections: the child learns to distinguish and synthesize the sounds of speech, music, etc. The child's ear is not an ego tape recorder that records all sounds in a row. Sharpening the thought, we can say that the child generally hears not with the ear, but with the temporal region of the cerebral cortex, and what he hears depends on the quality of the conditioned connections that have formed up to this moment in this temporal region of the cortex. This very important position of general psychology must be well understood, since the everyday experience of an adult person creates in him the illusion of an opposite character.

When we open our eyes, we see everything at once, but when we have normal hearing, we can hear everything. It seems that it has always been like this. This happens because the periods of learning to see, listen, in general, to all types of perception, are forgotten, do not lend themselves to awareness. So, an adult, looking at the eyes of a baby, experiences the illusion that the baby also sees. Meanwhile, this is not so. A newborn baby cannot see or hear. His reactions to bright light and sound are defensive, unconditionally reflex in nature. Often they say - he sees, but does not understand. This is also incorrect. It does not see and does not hear until it learns to distinguish shapes, colors, sizes, contours, combinations of spots and tones, until it learns to distinguish sounds. In order for the infant to learn to distinguish the mother’s face from the foggy spots reflected in his eyes, and later the faces of his loved ones, differential conditioned connections must be developed in the occipital cortex of his brain, and then dynamic stereotypes, i.e., systems of such connections. The same should become the basis for distinguishing the mother’s lulling voice, as well as other sounds, smells, touches, etc. Sensations and perceptions are the activity of the first signal system (later also the second), which is based on the system of conditioned reflexes.

Classes that promote differentiated perception of color (on the example of the older age group)

Plan

Introduction

1. The value of color perception in human life

2. Features of color perception by preschool children

3. The level of color perception in children of this age group

4. Conditions for the formation of color perception in preschool children

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Color as an object of study has always attracted scientists, psychologists, art critics, and naturalists. It is one of the most powerful means of expressiveness of painters. A well-developed sense of color helps to better feel the beauty of the surrounding world, the harmony of colors, and to feel spiritual comfort.

The task of the kindergarten teacher is to acquaint preschoolers with “sensory standards” in the field of color in the learning process, to teach them to use them as systems of sensory measurements or standards for analyzing the environment.

Since ancient times, people have attached special importance to color. It was believed to have magical powers, as each color elicits a specific reaction. Color can please and cause irritation, anxiety, feelings of melancholy or sadness. In other words, color has an emotional impact on people. Some colors calm the nervous system, others, on the contrary, irritate. Green, blue, blue have a calming effect, and purple, red, orange, yellow colors.
Japanese teachers determined that color perception makes it possible to most widely develop the child's senses, his natural taste (thinking, creativity), which in turn affects the overall development of a person.

German art historians came to the conclusion that color is a means of directly reflecting the world of experiences and emotions of a child. So Fitu S. believes that the task of a child-oriented art education lesson should be to develop the child's color sensations, through the skillful use of visualization in color science.

In our country, the problem of children's perception of color was given great attention by such famous teachers and psychologists as L.A. Wenger, I.D. Venev, G.G. Grigoriev, Z.M. Istomin, V.S. Mukhina, E.G. Pilyugina, N.P. Sakulina, A.M. Fonarev and others. They came to the conclusion that the use of color and "sensory standards" in the classroom of fine arts is of great importance not only for the development of color discrimination, but also for the formation of abstract - figurative thinking.

The fact of the impact of color on the emotional state is evidenced by the reactions of a preschool child to objects of various colors. So the scientific data obtained in the studies of recent decades (L.A. Venger, I.D. Venev, Z.M. Istomina, E.G. Pilyugina, A.M. Fonarev, etc.) showed that children from the first weeks and months of life are able to distinguish objects different color. As early as four years old, children perceive color in book illustrations and in their drawings as a means of decoration.

The provision on the use of color as an exponent of the emotional attitude of the child to the depicted, put forward by E.A. Flerina, is confirmed by the research of V.A. Ezineeva, A.V. Kompantseva, V.S. Mukhina; In the studies of the famous teacher V.S. Mukhina noted that when depicting pleasant events, children prefer warm tones, and unpleasant ones - cold. As the child assimilates the visual experience, his knowledge of the world around him, the color in the children's drawing becomes more realistic (studies by V.S. Mukhina, N.P. Sakulina, E.A. Flerina, etc.).

In the practice of the kindergarten, the mastery of color by children is organized in order to solve two interdependent tasks. On the one hand, the formation of a sense of color is an integral part of sensory education aimed at developing in children the ability to navigate in the world around them. On the other hand, by mastering the reference system of properties and attributes of objects (including generally accepted color standards) directly in visual activity, children learn to reflect these properties and attributes in a drawing appropriately.

At the same time, the assimilation of color standards (as well as forms) has a twofold effect on the development of the child's perception. As noted by V.S. Mukhin, standards determine, on the one hand, the nature of the development of perception: the child learns to classify objects according to their properties. However, on the other hand, in the perception of the child, the canonized normativity of colors and other qualities that characterize the object is fixed, and with direct perception, this object correlates with the mastered standard, while its individual characteristics may not be fixed. V.S. Mukhina considers it necessary to expand the canonized normativity (reference) of perception in the context of children learning "artistic languages" when teaching drawing. This, in her opinion, will enrich the perception and at the same time free the child from the simplified stereotypical normativity, will provide an opportunity to receive aesthetic pleasure from the beauty of a particular object or phenomenon.

1. The value of color perception in human life

The human eye is able to distinguish not only black and white gradations of chiaroscuro in a drawing, but also a variety of colors. When we open our eyes, we immediately find ourselves in a world full of color. Color accompanies a person everywhere, exerting a psychophysiological effect on him and causing various sensations - warmth or cold, cheerfulness or despondency, joy or anxiety, etc. For example, people quickly come to a cheerful state with a unique play of color shades created by a sunbeam breaking through the thickness of lead autumn clouds. The foundations for understanding color should be laid in people from childhood, if we consider the meaning of color as a phenomenon of spiritual culture and the need for its application in a wide variety of fields and branches of science and material production.

Color began to psychologically influence our distant ancestors. The use of bright coloring of objects, places of worship, clothes and faces had a certain spiritual meaning. In the ancient world, emperors wore purple clothes, and this color was only their privilege. Later, people continued to give different characteristics to the color. For example, in Europe White color was considered pure, joyful, reasonable, and yellow was the color of clouded joy, attention, blue - a thick shadow, severity, maturity, and black - bitterness, old age, uncertainty. Red was seen by Europeans as the color of sensitivity, youth and humanity.

In order to know what colors and how to use each person in everyday life, in raising children, one must understand how color affects the human condition. According to numerous studies, color qualitatively and comprehensively affects the psychophysiological state of a person, including changes in the composition of the blood, the dynamics of tissue healing, the tone of muscle contractions, the function of the cardiovascular system, perception (pain, temperature, time, space, size, weight), mental status (emotional state, activation, mental stress). At the same time, color affects specifically both when perceived through vision and when it illuminates parts of the human body. A person unconsciously often uses color as a means of mental self-regulation. People with different characters and in different mental states see the world literally in different colors, moreover, balanced people perceive the world as brighter and more colorful.

Now in every country there are designers and color psychologists, color therapists and color architects. Coloristics is the science of color perception. Its founder is the great German poet I.V. Goethe. He wrote the fundamental work "Teaching about colors".

The main idea of ​​coloristics is that color affects a person psychologically and psychophysiologically. Looking closely at some color for several minutes, a person can feel not only a change in his well-being and mood; body temperature, respiratory rate and heart rhythm may change. But each person reacts to the same color in their own way. To study the character and emotional states of a person, M. Luscher and H. Frilling invent color tests in the middle of the last century. Max Luscher creates a color method for diagnosing a person's condition, the so-called "Luscher test". 23 colors were chosen by him from 4500 colors, and the selection criterion was the maximum approximation to natural colors. This test reveals problems from 6 to 7 years of age. In this case, the child simply chooses the most liked or most unpleasant colors from those offered.

Thus, determining the influence of a particular color or composition of colors on the well-being and condition of a person, psychologists came to the following conclusion: if a person chooses red, this characterizes excitability, impulsiveness, passion, while different shades of green calm down, tune in to business, work fret. Blue, blue colors are also “cold”, that is, balancing, directing to reflection, and not experiences.

Using such knowledge, we can consciously approach the formation of the color scheme that surrounds our children. In our difficult time, we can surround children with the harmony of color in clothes, toys, and in the design of a children's room. If all dirty, unnaturally bright, blood-red, brown, black and gray colors are removed from everyday life, this will already contribute to the protection of children, the development of balance, calmness, thoughtfulness in them, and direct them to beauty.

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