Or several, i.e. is single-valued or multi-valued.

For example, the word "iceberg" means "a large accumulation of ice or a large block of ice that has broken off from a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word “braid” can have several interpretations. For example, “braid” is “a type of hairstyle” ( girl's braid), and also - “a bank near a river of a special shape” (went for a swim on a spit) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (sharpen a scythe well). Thus, the word "braid" has multiple meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a certain set of features that allow the word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of tense, person, number, etc., and - tense, present or past, gender, number, etc.

If the main component of the lexical meaning is, as a rule, contained in its root, then the grammatical meaning of a word is most easily determined by its ending (inflection). For example, at the end of a noun it is easy to determine its gender, case or number. So, in the sentence “The morning turned out to be cool, but sunny,” the noun has the following: Nominative case, neuter gender, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is common noun, inanimate.

If you try to determine the lexical meaning of the word “morning”, then you will probably clarify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.

If you learn to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose syntactic constructions (and sentences) that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and usage.

Related article

Sources:

• lexical meaning is

At morphological analysis participles need to define it view, which refers to the constant features of a given part of speech. This is very important for the translator, since the one who has changed his view when translated, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.

You will need

• - table of forms of participles.

Instructions

Try to put full communion in short form. With the passive this is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the active you are unlikely to be able to perform a similar operation. In any case, in modern literary real participles short form Dont Have. Some dialects have it. Short form of passive participles varies by gender and number. However, some passive participles also in modern times they are usually not put in a short form. For example, “breakable”, “readable”, etc. In such cases, a short form exists, but rather refers to the archaic style.

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note

Some participles turn into adjectives over time. This occurs in cases where a particular action or state is constant sign of this item. These can be both active and passive participles - a walking excavator, canned peas, etc. In this case, there is, of course, no need to determine their type.

Helpful advice

Usually, to determine the type of participle, one attribute is sufficient. But in doubtful cases, apply them all in turn.

The table of forms of participles can be found in many reference books on the Russian language. But for convenience, compose it yourself. It can consist of only three columns and three rows. On the first line write "Signs", " Active participle", "Passive participle". The following lines will contain suffixes that form one form or another, additional questions, presence or absence of a short form.

Sources:

• what is the type of participles in 2019

A person tries to gain information about himself, his character and his expected future from all available sources. One way to get to know yourself is to find out what your name means. After all, both character and fate depend on this set of letters, which accompanies a person throughout his life.

Instructions

The vast majority of names have their own. There are a lot of ancient Greek and native Russian names in Russian culture. Each name has a meaning - the word from which it was formed. This word will be the main defining factor of a person. In addition, by name you can trace your character, find out interests and inclinations, and even guess what the names of people with whom it is best to build friendships and inclinations should be. romantic relationship. Books with the meanings of names are sold in any bookstore, in addition, numerous websites will be able to provide the information you are interested in.

According to astrologers, each letter of the alphabet is associated with a constellation or planet and determines some feature of a person. A name is a complex of such letters, therefore, in order to find out the meaning of the name and its influence on a person, it is necessary to decipher each letter individually.

Some experts believe that it is necessary to decipher not the entire name, but only its first letter. And having learned the meaning of the first letters of a person’s last name, first name and patronymic, you will receive extremely clear information about him.

It has been proven that the vibrations that occur during speech, depending on the frequency, have different effects on different parts of the cerebral cortex. A name is something that accompanies a person from infancy and, perhaps, the word that he hears most often. Being under constant influence of certain sounds, a person systematically experiences an impact on areas of the cortex, which shapes his behavioral characteristics and worldview.

You can find out not only the meaning of the name, but also the impression your name makes on others. Every sound evokes associations in people’s minds: big - small, evil - good, active - passive, cold - soft. Numerous websites will help you analyze your name or nickname. You just need to enter it into the search bar, indicating , and you will find out what your name means to others.

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• how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019

Genus noun determines the ending of the dependent word (for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases, the form of the subject (verb, in the past tense). In words of Slavic origin and borrowed ones one has to be guided completely different criteria.

You will need

• - Internet access;
• - manuals on the Russian language.

Instructions

Put the noun in initial form( , Nominative case). Highlight the ending. The noun belongs to masculine, if (wind, computer) or “a”, “I” (Sasha, uncle). Feminine inherent endings “a”, “ya” (column, guest) sign (night, stove). Neuter gender ends with “o”, “e”, but there is a group of indeclinable neuter nouns with the ending “i”: time, flame.

♦Lexicology (Greek lexikos “verbal”) – a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary language.

Russian vocabulary

Vocabulary is the entire set of words of a language, its vocabulary. The branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology (gr. lexikos - vocabulary + logos - teaching).

Word is the basic unit of the lexical level of a language.

Lexical meaning of the word. Its main types

A word differs in its sound design, morphological structure and the meaning and meaning contained in it.

Lexical meaning of the word- this is its content, i.e. historically fixed in the minds of speakers the correlation between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality, “formulated according to the grammatical laws of a given language and being an element of the general semantic system dictionary".

Components of the lexical meaning of a word:

a) denotative meaning - determined by the connection of the word with reality;

b) grammatical meaning – determined by the connection of the word with a certain lexical-grammatical class of words, with a part of speech;

c) connotative meaning - a collection of heterogeneous things. semantic e-tov (expressive, evaluative, stylistic, associative, etc.), which are assigned to the lexical. the meaning of the word as an additional accompanying meaning and carry information about the speaker’s attitude to the subject of speech.

For example:

SELF-AFFIRMATION, -I, Wed (book) Affirmation of yourself, your personality, your meaning.

a) Lexical meaning: “Assertion of oneself, one’s personality, one’s meaning.”

b) Grammatical meaning: in the dictionary it is indicated: -i, Wed, from which it follows that this is a noun of the 2nd declension (since it has the singular ending –ya, neuter in the genitive case.

c) Connotative meaning: there is a mark in the dictionary (book). Contains an indication of style.

Polysemy of the word

Polysemy, or polysemy (gr. poly - many + sema - sign), is the property of words to be used in different meanings. Yes, word SPICY in modern Russian it has 6 meanings:

SPICY,-aya, -oe; sharp and sharp, sharp, sharp Andόstro. 1 . Honed, well cutting, piercing. O. knife. Sharp spear. 2 . Tapering towards the end. O. nose. Boots with pointed toes. 3. Insightful, good at perceiving. O. mind. O. eye. 4 . (sharp, sharp, sharp). Distinguished by wit (1 value). Sharp joke. O. tongue. Someone has a sharp tongue. 5 . Strongly affecting the taste or smell. O. smell. O. sauce. Spicy food. 6. transfer. Strongly, clearly expressed; tense. Acute pain. Acute inflammation(not chronic). An acute situation. O. plot. ♦ Sharp corner– angle less than 90°. || noun. acuity, -ы´, and. (to 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 values).

The semantic connection of the selected meanings is close, therefore they are all considered as meanings of the same word.

In the modern Russian language, there are four main types of lexical meanings of words.

Types of lexical meanings of a word:

1) basic – non-basic

Basic meaning the one that first comes to mind when the word is used out of context. In explanatory dictionaries it is given first (primary), all other meanings are called non-core(secondary). Non-basic meanings of a word are determined by context.

HOUSE, - a(-u), pl. -a, -ov, m. 1 . Residential (or institutional) building. D.-new building. Kamenny village. Walk to the house. I've left home. Flag on the house. The whole village came running.(everyone living in the house). 2. Your own home, as well as family, people living together, their household. Get home. Leave the house. Native village. Accept someone into the village. We know each other at home(our families visit each other) . Busy around the house. The mother has the whole village in her arms. 3. (pl. No). A place where people live, united by common interests and living conditions. Pan-European village. Rodina - our common village.4 . what or Which. An institution, establishment that serves something. public needs. D. rest. D. creativity. D. scientists. D. stage veterans. Torgovy d.(name of some trading companies). D. models. D. furniture. D. shoes. D. trade(names of large stores). 5 . Dynasty, b. Reigning D. D. Romanov. ♦ At home- Houses. Work from home. Home- home. Take work home. The order is delivered to your home. The White house– 1) residence of the American president in Washington; 2) in Russia: the main government building. Give up the house to whom– stop accepting, inviting. Pan-European House(high) – all European states as equal and friendly communities. Apartment house- an apartment building built for rental. Bringing Down the House(colloquial joke) - about complete disorder, confusion in the house. My home is my castle– last about the reliable inviolability of home and family. || decrease little house, -A, m. (to 1 value) and house, -mka, m. (to 2 digits). Live in your own house. || unich. little house,-A, m. (to 1 value). || stole. house, -A, m. (to 1 value) And domina, -s, m. (to 1 value). || adj. brownie, -th, -oe (to 1 value). Home Book(for registration of residents).

Meaning LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD

Nominative (direct) meaning with l 6-v a. Lexical meaning, directly related to the reflection in consciousness of objects, phenomena, relations of objective reality. Knife (name of the item), beautiful (name of the quality), read (name of the action), ten (name of the number), quickly (name of the attribute of the action). Words that have a nominative meaning form free phrases.

Phraseologically related meaning of words a. Lexical meaning existing or acquired only as part of phraseological unit. The adjective fraught with the meaning “capable of causing, giving rise to something” realizes this meaning in the phraseological unit fraught with consequences. In the phraseological phrase us fire and fire, both nouns acquire the meaning “trouble”

Syntactically determined meaning of a word. Lexical meaning acquired by a word only in a certain syntactic function. The noun ukaz in the function of a predicate with negation does not acquire meaning ^cannot serve as an authority, a basis, an instruction for anyone.” The tyrant is still trying to prove that no one can tell him and that he will do whatever he wants (Dobrolyubov).

Lexical meaning consists of a real meaning, the bearer of which is the root of the word (non-derivative stem), and a derivational meaning expressed by word-forming affixes. The meaning of “small house” in the word little house consists of the real (objective) meaning contained in the root dom-, and the derivational meaning expressed by the real reduction suffix -ik. In words with a non-derivative base, the lexical and real meanings coincide. see real meaning, derivational meaning.

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is the LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  - the content of a word, reflecting in the mind and consolidating in it the idea of ​​an object, property, process, phenomenon, etc., L. ...
• MEANING
  
• MEANING
  content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The history of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ...
• MEANING in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The meaning of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ...
• MEANING V Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -I, Wed. 1. Meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, designates. 3. glance, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical...
• MEANING
  LEXICAL MEANING, the semantic content of a word, reflecting and consolidating in the mind the idea of ​​an object, property, process, phenomenon and...
• MEANING in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  VALUE, importance, significance, role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. Content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign...
• MEANING in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  meaning, meanings, meanings, meanings, meaning, meanings, meaning, meanings, meaning, meanings, meanings, …
• MEANING in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  -I'm with. 1) Meaning, content of something. The meaning of the gesture. Meaning of the word. She is troubled by a dream. Not knowing how to understand it, a terrible dream...
• MEANING in the Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary:
  
• MEANING in the Russian Language Thesaurus:
  1. Syn: importance, importance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary importance 2. Syn: ...
• WORDS
  cm. …
• MEANING in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
  meaning, reason; weight, importance, authority, dignity, strength, value. Present, figurative, direct, proper, strict, figurative, literal, broad meaning words. "This girl...
• MEANING in the Russian Synonyms dictionary:
  Syn: significance, importance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary Syn: ...
• WORDS
  pl. 1) The text of the vocal work. 2) transfer decomposition Empty talk...
• MEANING in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  Wed 1) What does someone mean? or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ...
• MEANING in Lopatin’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  meaning...
• MEANING full spelling dictionary Russian language:
  meaning, …
• MEANING in the Spelling Dictionary:
  meaning...
• MEANING in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, denotes by gaze, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical z. words (meant by...
• MEANING in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
  1) importance, significance, role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. 2) Content associated with a particular expression (words, sentences, ...
• MEANING in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  values, cf. (book). 1. The meaning is that this item(Word, gesture, sign) means. The word "knowledge" has several meanings. The word "sick"...
• WORDS
  plural words 1) The text of the vocal work. 2) transfer decomposition Empty talk...
• MEANING in Ephraim's Explanatory Dictionary:
  value avg. 1) What does someone mean? or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ...
• WORDS
  
• MEANING in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  Wed 1. What someone or something means; meaning. 2. Importance, significance, purpose. 3. Influence,...
• WORDS
  pl. 1. The text of the vocal work. 2. transfer decomposition Empty talk...
• MEANING in the Large Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  I Wed. Having the ability to express, mean something, have some meaning. II Wed. 1. Importance, significance. 2. Influence,...
• ENGLISH LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  language mixed. By its origin, it is associated with the western branch of the Germanic group of languages. (cm.). It is customary to share the history of A. Yaz. on the …
• LEXICAL MEANING in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  part of the semantic content inherent in a word as a lexeme (as opposed to the grammatical meaning inherent in it as a member of a grammatical class...
• LEXICAL MEANING in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
  lexical, that part of the semantic composition of a word which, in contrast to the grammatical meaning of entire classes and categories of words, is inherent only in a given lexical...
• JAPAN* in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron.
• INTRODUCTORY WORDS in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
  Words that are not formally related to the members of the sentence, are not members of the sentence and express the speaker’s attitude to what is being expressed, indicating the source...
• MEANING AND IMPORTANCE in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  concepts that define different shapes implementation of the basic linguistic connection “sign - signified” in the processes of understanding and in the language system. The contents of these...
• HEIDEGGER in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (Heidegger) Martin (1889-1976) - German philosopher, one of the greatest thinkers of the 20th century. Born and raised in a poor working Catholic family. ...
• MEANING AND IMPORTANCE in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - concepts that define different forms of implementation of the basic linguistic connection “sign - signified” in the processes of understanding and in the language system. Content …
• JAPANESE in the Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
  For a long time it was believed that Japanese is not included in any of the known language families, occupying genealogical classification languages...
• PARONYMS
  - (from the Greek para - near and onyma - name) - words with the same root, similar (but not identical) in sound, but ...
• HOMONYMS in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
  - (from the Greek homos - identical and onyma - name) - words that are the same in sound and spelling, but different in ...
• OCCASIONALISM in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
  - (from Lat. occasionalis - random) - individually authored words created by a poet or writer in accordance with the laws of word formation of the language, according to ...
• NEOLOGISM in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
  - (from the Greek neos - new and logos - word) - a newly formed (or newly introduced into the language) word or expression that reflects ...
• RING in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
  - a type of repetition (cm): framing, repetition at the end of a work of some elements of its beginning (sound, lexical, syntactic, semantic). Do not sing …
• ARCHAISMS in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
  - (from Greek archaios - ancient) - outdated words and expressions used, as a rule, in a “high poetic” style and giving ...
• ANTONYMS in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
  - (from the Greek anti - against and onyma - name) - words that are opposite in meaning, helping to better convey, depict contradictions, ...
• TYCHINA in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  Pavel Grigorievich - the largest Ukrainian Soviet poet, academician and doctor of literature. R. in the Chernigov region, in the family of a rural psalm-reader. Graduated...
• POTEBNYA in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  Alexander Afanasyevich - philologist, literary critic, ethnographer. R. in the family of a minor nobleman. He studied at a classical gymnasium, then at Kharkov University...
• ZAMYATIN in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  Evgeniy Ivanovich - modern writer. Born in Lebedyan, Kharkov province, in 1908 he graduated from St. Petersburg Polytechnical Institute according to 303 shipbuilding...

The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit with a particular phenomenon of reality, fixed in the minds of speakers.

Most words name objects, their characteristics, quantity, actions, processes and act as full-valued, independent words, performing a nominative function in the language (Latin nominatio - naming, appellation). Having uniform grammatical and syntactic meanings and functions, these words are combined into the categories of nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words of the state category. Their lexical meaning is supplemented by grammatical ones. For example, the word newspaper denotes a specific item; the lexical meaning indicates that it is " periodical in the form of large sheets, usually daily, dedicated to the events of current political and public life." The noun newspaper has grammatical meanings of gender (feminine), number (this object is thought of as one, not many) and case. The word read names the action - "perceive what is written , pronouncing out loud or reproducing to oneself" and characterizes it as real, occurring at the moment of speech, performed by the speaker (and not by other persons).

From significant parts speeches are deprived of the nominative function of pronouns and modal words. The first ones only point to objects or their signs: I, you, this, so much; they receive a specific meaning in speech, but cannot serve as a generalized name for a number of similar objects, characteristics or quantities. The latter express the speaker’s attitude to the thought being expressed: The mail has probably already arrived.

Functional parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) also do not perform a nominative function, that is, they do not name objects, signs, actions, but are used as formal grammatical linguistic means.

Lexical meanings of words, their types, development and changes are studied lexical semantics(semasiology) (gr. sЇemasia – designation + logos – teaching). Grammatical meanings words are considered in the grammar of the modern Russian language.

All objects and phenomena of reality have their own names in language. Words point to real objects, to our attitude towards them, which arose in the process of understanding the world around us. This connection of the word with the phenomena of reality (denotations) is non-linguistic in nature, and yet it is the most important factor in determining the nature of the word as a sign unit.

Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard or touched in this moment, but also the concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.

A concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general and essential features of the phenomena of reality, ideas about their properties. Such signs can be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object, etc. A concept is the result of a generalization of a mass of individual phenomena, during which a person is distracted from unimportant signs, focusing on the main, fundamental ones. Without such abstraction, that is, without abstract ideas, human thinking is impossible.

Concepts are formed and consolidated in our minds with the help of words. The connection of words with a concept (significative factor) makes the word a tool human thinking. Without the ability of a word to name a concept, there would be no language itself. Denoting concepts in words allows us to make do with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one person from many people and name anyone, we use the word person. To denote all the richness and variety of colors of living nature, there are words red, yellow, blue, green, etc. Moving in space various items is expressed the word goes(person, train, bus, icebreaker and even ice, rain, snow, etc.).

Explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language most succinctly reflect system connections words They represent to varying degrees completeness and accuracy of the lists of words that make up the lexical system in all the diversity and complexity of its functioning in the language. So, the word island does not indicate geographical position, size, name, shape, fauna, flora of any particular island, therefore, abstracting from these particular characteristics, we call this word any part of the land surrounded on all sides by water (in the ocean, sea, lake, river) Thus , those words are fixed in words essential features and properties of objects that make it possible to distinguish an entire class of objects from other classes.

However, not all words name a concept. They are not capable of being expressed by conjunctions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names. The latter deserve special mention.

There are proper names that name individual concepts. These are the names outstanding people(Shakespeare, Dante, Leo Tolstoy, Chaliapin, Rachmaninov), geographical names(Volga, Baikal, Alps, America). By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of ​​an object that is unique in its kind.

Personal names of people (Alexander, Dmitry), surnames (Golubev, Davydov), on the contrary, do not give rise to a certain idea about a person in our minds.

Common nouns (historian, engineer, son-in-law) based on the distinctive features of professions and degree of relationship allow us to get some idea about the people named by these words.

Animal names may be close to generic names. So, if a horse’s name is Bulany, this indicates its gender and color. Squirrel is usually called an animal with white fur (although a cat, a dog, and a goat can be called this). So different nicknames relate differently to generalized names.

Types of lexical meanings of words in Russian

Comparison different words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

According to the method of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished. The direct (or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings:

1. A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports or legs.
2. The colors of soot, coal.
3. To seethe, bubble, evaporate from strong heat (about liquids). These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in Old Russian language meant throne, reign, capital.

The direct meanings of words depend less than others on the context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, they say that direct meanings have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

Transferable (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of names from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc.

So, the word table has several figurative meanings:

1. A piece of special equipment or a machine part of a similar shape: operating table, raise the machine table.
2. Meals, food: rent a room with a table.
3. A department in an institution in charge of some special range of matters: information desk.

The word black has the following figurative meanings:

Dark, as opposed to something lighter called white: brown bread.

1. Has taken on a dark color, darkened: black from tanning.
2. Kurnoy (long form only, obsolete): black hut.
3. Gloomy, desolate, heavy: black thoughts.
4. Criminal, malicious: black treason.
5. Not main, auxiliary (long form only): back door in the house.
6. Physically difficult and unskilled (long form only): menial work, etc.

The word boil has the following figurative meanings: 1. “Manifest in strong degree": work is in full swing. 2. "Exhibit something with force, to a strong degree": seethe with indignation.

As we see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly correlated with the concept, but are closer to it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain imagery: black thoughts, black betrayal; seethe with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.

In their reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.

However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative names such as the elbow of a pipe, the spout of a teapot, the passage of a clock, etc. In such cases, they talk about extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, about dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.

2. According to the degree of semantic motivation, unmotivated meanings are distinguished (non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the word; motivated (derivative, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and word-forming affixes. For example, the words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. The words dining room, tabletop, dining room, construction, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whitewash, whitewash, whiteness have motivated meanings; they are, as it were, “derived” from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative base.

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to identify their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes ancient family ties words with other words makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis makes it possible to identify the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, knot, ear, drag (envelop) Thus, the degree of motivation of a particular meaning words may not be the same. Moreover, the meaning may seem motivated person with philological training, while a non-specialist semantic connections these words seem to be lost.

3. If possible lexical compatibility The meanings of words are divided into free and non-free. The first ones are based only on subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink can be combined with words denoting liquids (water, milk, tea, lemonade, etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the “freedom” of combining words with unrelated meanings is relative.

Non-free meanings of words are characterized disabilities lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and linguistic factors. For example, the word to win is combined with the words victory, top, but not combined with the word defeat. You can say lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you cannot say “lower your hand” (leg, briefcase).

Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically determined. The first are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend (the elements of these phrases cannot be swapped).

The syntactically determined meanings of a word are realized only if it performs something unusual for itself in a sentence. syntactic function. So, the words log, oak, hat, acting as a nominal part compound predicate, get the values ​​" stupid man"; "dumb, insensitive person"; "sluggish, lack of initiative person, bungler." V. V. Vinogradov, who was the first to identify this type of meaning, called them functionally and syntactically determined. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are among the figurative meanings .

As part of the syntactically determined meanings of words, there are also structurally limited meanings that are realized only under certain conditions. syntactic construction. For example, the word whirlwind with the direct meaning of “gusty” Roundabout Circulation wind" in a construction with a noun in the form genitive case takes on a figurative meaning: a whirlwind of events - “the rapid development of events.”

4. According to the nature of the functions performed, lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the predominant is the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature. For example, in the phrase A tall man the word tall indicates great growth; this is its nominative meaning. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word man not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for the neutral word high.

5. By the nature of the connections of some values ​​with others in lexical system languages ​​can be distinguished:

1. standalone values, which words have that are relatively independent in language system and denoting mainly specific objects: table, theater, flower;
2. correlative meanings that are inherent in words opposed to each other according to some characteristics: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age;
3. deterministic meanings, i.e. those “which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants...” For example: nag (cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse); wonderful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).

Thus, modern typology lexical meanings are based, firstly, on conceptual-subject connections of words (i.e., paradigmatic relationships), secondly, word-formation (or derivational) connections of words, thirdly, relationships of words to each other (sytagmatic relationships) . Studying the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand semantic structure words, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.

1. See Ulukhanov I. S. Word-formation semantics in the Russian language and the principles of its description M., 1977 P. 100–101
2. Shmelev D. N The meaning of the word // Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979. P. 89.

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Self-test questions

1. What is the lexical meaning of a word?
2. What branch of the science of language studies the lexical meaning of a word?
3. What words perform a nominative function in speech? What does it consist of?
4. What words lack a nominative function?
5. What does the term "concept" mean?
6. What connection is established between the concept and the word?
7. What words do not denote concepts?
8. What types of lexical meanings of words are distinguished in modern Russian?
9. What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word?
10. What is the motivated and unmotivated meaning of words?
11. What is the difference between free and non-free meanings of words?
12. What are the features of phraseologically related and syntactically determined meanings of words?
13. What distinguishes the autonomous meanings of words?
14. What are correlative meanings of words?
15. What distinguishes the deterministic meanings of words?

Exercises

3. Select words in sentences that have free (nominative) and non-free (phraseologically related and syntactically determined) meanings.

1. It’s time for me to sort out your faults, puppy! (Kr.) 2. Now I have been given leisure forever. (Sim.) 3. The soldiers sleep, who have leisure. (TV). 4. Cranberry is a creeping marsh plant with red sour berries. 5. That's cranberry! 6. Rumors and conjectures arose again about this spreading cranberries talked everywhere. 7. White birch under my window it was covered with snow, like silver. (Es.) 8. White work is done by white, black work is done by black (M.). 9. He doesn’t live in this world. 10. The tenant came late and did not bother the landlady. 11. The girl fell asleep and lost weight. 12. The heat has subsided. 13. What a goose! 14. The caravan of noisy geese stretched to the south. (P.) 15. This is not the first time this palm goose has been here. 16. Blue fog, snow expanse. (Es.). 17. She is a blue stocking, not a woman.

4. Highlight words in the text that have nominative, phraseologically related and syntactically determined meanings.

Senya was lying on the sofa, all gray, with wrinkles, time, it seemed, was already a burden to him. ... - I do not believe! No I do not believe! -What are you talking about? – asked Ryazantsev. – I don’t believe that in old age a person should reproach himself for what was wrong, for not living his youth like that. - Why? - Because! What right does an old man who seems to no longer live, what right does he have to judge a young man who is living?..

They agreed that they would write a book together, because Senya alone would not have time to finish it. When Senya was very ill, lay on his sofa and shouted that he was not being treated by doctors, veterinarians, Ryazantsev told him: “Listen, Senya, we need to finish the book this year.” And Senya’s thoughts came into complete, sometimes even perfect order. ...When later consciousness began to come to him only from time to time, even then he cared most about the book. Nothing else could be expected from him, but suddenly Senya began to express judgments that were unusual for him. Said once:

- We barely know each other.

- Who are we? – asked Ryazantsev.

– People... Radio, television, cinema – all this shows us in breadth. Quantitatively. Externally. But we are losing one primitive thing - an old, good, time-tested genre - the genre of friendly conversation. How can people not lose in this... Keep in mind.

You could say to Sena like this: “Keep in mind,” he left, Ryazantsev remained in this life.

(S. Zalygin.)

5. Indicate in the text the words that perform a nominative function and those that do not; words that denote and do not denote concepts, as well as those indicating single concepts. In addition, indicate words that have Various types meanings: direct and figurative, motivated and unmotivated, free and unfree, nominative and expressive-synonymous. Highlight words with autonomous, correlative and deterministic meanings.

1. The book began to be printed. It was called “In Defense of the Disadvantaged.”

The typesetters tore the manuscript into pieces, and each typed only his own piece, which began with half a word and had no meaning. So, in the word “love” - “lu” remained with one, and “bove” went to the other, but this did not matter, since they never read what they were typing.

- Let him be empty, this scribbler! This is anathema handwriting! - said one and, wincing with anger and impatience, covered his eyes with his hand. The fingers of the hand were black with lead dust, dark leaden shadows lay on the young face, and when the worker coughed and spat, his saliva was painted the same dark and deathly color.

2. Books stood in motley rows on the shelves, and the walls were not visible behind them; books lay in high piles on the floor; and behind the store, in two dark rooms, lay all the books, books. And it seemed that the one bound by them was silently shuddering and tearing out. human thought, and there has never been real silence and real peace in this kingdom of books.

A gray-bearded gentleman with a noble expression respectfully spoke to someone on the phone, cursed in a whisper: “idiots!”, and shouted.

- Bear! - and when the boy entered, he made his face ignoble and ferocious and shook his finger. - How many times do you have to scream? Scoundrel!

The boy blinked his eyes in fear, and the gray-bearded gentleman calmed down. With his foot and hand he pulled out a heavy bunch of books, he wanted to lift it with one hand - but he couldn’t immediately and threw it back on the floor.

- Take it to Yegor Ivanovich.

The boy took the bundle with both hands and did not lift it.

- Alive! - the gentleman shouted.

The boy picked it up and carried it.

- Why are you crying? - asked a passerby.

The bear was crying. Soon a crowd gathered, an angry policeman came with a saber and a pistol, took Mishka and the books and took them all together in a cab to the police station.

- What's there? - asked the guard on duty, looking up from the paper he was compiling.

“It’s an unbearable burden, your honor,” answered the angry policeman and pushed Mishka forward.

The police officer approached the bundle, still stretching as he walked, putting his legs back and sticking out his chest, sighed deeply and slightly lifted the books.

- Wow! – he said with pleasure.

The wrapping paper tore at the edge, the police officer peeled it back and read the title “In Defense of the Disadvantaged.”

Words in Russian have 2 meanings: lexical and grammatical. If the second type is abstract, then the first is individual in nature. In this article we will present the main types of lexical meanings of the word.

Lexical meaning, or, as it is sometimes called, the meaning of a word, shows how the sound shell of a word relates to objects or phenomena of the world around us. It is worth noting that it does not contain the entire complex of features characteristic of a particular object.

What is the lexical meaning of a word?

Meaning of the word reflects only features that allow one to distinguish one object from another. Its center is the base of the word.

All types of lexical meanings of a word can be divided into 5 groups depending on:

1. correlation;
2. origin;
3. compatibility;
4. functions;
5. nature of the connection.

This classification was proposed by the Soviet scientist Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov in the article “Basic types of lexical meanings of a word” (1977). Below we will look in detail this classification.

Types by correlation

From a nominative point of view (that is, by correlation), all meanings of a word are divided into direct and figurative. Direct meaning is basic. It is directly related to how this or that letter and sound form correlates with the concept that has developed in the minds of native speakers.

Thus, the word “cat” refers to a small predatory animal from the cat family, which belongs to the order of mammals that exterminate rodents. A "knife" is a tool that is used for cutting; consists of a blade and a handle. Adjective "green" denotes the color of growing foliage.

Over time, the meaning of a word can change, subject to trends characteristic of a particular time in the life of a people. So, back in the 18th century, the word “wife” was used in the sense of “woman”. It came into use much later to mean “wife” or “a woman who is married to a man.” Similar changes occurred with the word “husband”.

Figurative meaning the word is derived from the main one. With its help, one lexical unit is endowed with the properties of another based on common or similar characteristics. Thus, the adjective “dark” is used to describe a space that is immersed in darkness or in which there is no light.

But at the same time, this lexeme is quite often used in a figurative meaning. Thus, the adjective “dark” can describe something unclear (for example, manuscripts). It can also be used in relation to a person. In this context, the adjective “dark” would indicate that a person in question, uneducated or ignorant.

As a rule, value transfer occurs due to one of the following signs:

As can be seen from the above examples, the figurative meanings that have developed in words are in one way or another connected with the main one. Unlike author's metaphors, which are widely used in fiction, figurative lexical meanings are stable and occur much more often in the language.

It is worth noting that in the Russian language there is often a phenomenon when figurative meanings lose their imagery. Thus, the combinations “teapot spout” or “teapot handle” have become closely integrated into the Russian language and are familiar to its speakers.

Lexical meanings by origin

All lexical units existing in a language have their own etymology. However, upon careful examination, you can notice that the meaning of some units is easy to deduce, while in the case of others it is quite difficult to understand what a particular word means. Based on this difference, a second group of lexical meanings is distinguished - by origin.

From the point of view of origin, there are two types of meanings:

1. Motivated;
2. Unmotivated.

In the first case we are talking about lexical units ah, formed by adding affixes. The meaning of a word is derived from the meaning of the stem and affixes. In the second case, the meaning of the lexeme does not depend on the meaning of its individual components, that is, it is non-derivative.

Thus, the words “running”, “red” are classified as unmotivated. Their derivatives are motivated: “to run”, “to escape”, “to blush”. Knowing the meaning of the lexical units underlying them, we can easily deduce the meaning of derivatives. However, the meaning of motivated words is not always so easy to deduce. Sometimes an etymological analysis is required.

Lexical meanings depending on compatibility

Each language imposes certain restrictions on the use of lexical units. Some units can only be used in a certain context. In this case, we are talking about the compatibility of lexical units. From the point of view of compatibility, there are two types of meanings:

1. free;
2. not free.

In the first case, we are talking about units that can be freely combined with each other. However, such freedom cannot be absolute. It is very conditional. Thus, nouns such as “door”, “window”, “lid” can be freely used with the verb “open”. At the same time, you cannot use the words “packaging” or “crime” with it. Thus, the meaning of the lexeme “open” dictates the rules for us, according to which certain concepts may or may not be combined with it.

Unlike free ones, the compatibility of units with a non-free meaning is very limited. As a rule, such lexemes are included in phraseological units or syntactically determined.

In the first case, the units are connected phraseological meaning . For example, the words “play” and “nerves,” taken separately, lack the semantic component “deliberately irritate.” And only when these lexemes are combined in the phraseological unit “play on your nerves” do they acquire this meaning. The adjective “sidekick” cannot be used together with the word “enemy” or “comrade”. According to the norms of the Russian language, this adjective can only be combined with the noun “friend”.

Syntactically determined meaning is acquired by a word only when it performs a function unusual for it in a sentence. Thus, a noun can sometimes act as a predicate in a sentence: “And you are a hat!”

Functional types of lexical meanings

Each lexical meaning carries a specific function. Using some units of language, we simply name objects or phenomena. We use others to express some kind of assessment. There are two types functional values:

• nominative;
• expressive-semantic.

Tokens of the first type do not carry additional (evaluative) characteristics. As an example, we can cite such linguistic units as “look”, “man”, “drink”, “make noise”, etc.

Tokens belonging to the second type, on the contrary, contain an evaluative attribute. They are separate linguistic units, are allocated as a separate dictionary entry and act as expressively colored synonyms for their neutral equivalents: “look” - “stare”, “drink” - “thump”.

Lexical meanings by nature of connection

Another important aspect of the meaning of a word is its connection with other lexical units of the language. From this point of view, the following are distinguished: types of lexical meanings:

1. correlative (lexemes that are opposed to each other based on some attribute: “big” - “small”);
2. autonomous (lexical units independent of each other: “hammer”, “saw”, “table”);
3. determiners (lexemes with an expressive meaning, determined by the meaning of other lexical units: “huge” and “hefty” are determiners for the adjective “big”).

Cited by V.V. Vinogradov’s classification quite fully reflects the system of lexical meanings in the Russian language. However, the scientist does not mention another no less important aspect. In any language there are words that have more than one meaning. In this case, we are talking about single-valued and polysemantic words.

Single and polysemous words

As mentioned above, all words can be divided into two large groups:

• unambiguous;
• multi-valued.

Single-valued lexemes are used to denote only one specific subject or phenomena. The term “monosemantic” is often used to denote them. The category of unambiguous words includes:

However, there are not many such lexemes in the Russian language. Polysemantic or polysemantic words have become much more widespread.

It is important to note that the term “polysemy” should in no case be confused with “homonymy”. The difference between these linguistic phenomena lies in the existence of a connection between the meanings of words.

For example, the word "escape" can mean:

1. leaving the place of serving a sentence (imprisonment) for at will, thanks to a well-developed plan or by chance.
2. young plant stem with buds and leaves.

As can be seen from this example, the given values ​​are not related to each other. Thus, we are talking about homonyms.

Let's give another example - “paper”:

1. material made from cellulose;
2. document ( trans.).

Both meanings have one semantic component, so this lexeme belongs to the category of polysemantic ones.

Where can I find the lexical meaning of a word?

In order to find out what a particular word means, you need to consult a dictionary. They give precise definition words. By turning to an explanatory dictionary, you can not only find out the meaning of the lexical unit of interest, but also find examples of its use. In addition, describing the meaning of a word helps to understand the difference between synonyms. All vocabulary in the explanatory dictionary is arranged alphabetically.

Such dictionaries are usually intended for native speakers. However, foreigners learning Russian can also use them.

As an example you can bring the following dictionaries:

• "Explanatory Dictionary of Living Great Russian language" - IN AND. Dahl;
• “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” - S.I. Ozhegov;
• “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” - D.N. Ushakov;
• "Russian Dictionary onomastic terminology" - A.V. Superanskaya.

As mentioned above, in the explanatory dictionary you can find the lexical meanings of words in the Russian language and examples of their use. However, this is not all the information that this type of dictionary provides. They also provide information about grammar and stylistic features lexical units.