Syntax interesting facts. Syntax: the science of language, what it studies, basic concepts

The term "syntax" is used to designate both the object of study and the branch of the science of language.

Language syntax - it is his syntactic structure, a set of laws operating in a language that regulate the construction syntactic units.

Syntax as a science- this is a section of grammar that covers the syntactic structure of the language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units.

The division of grammar into morphology and syntax is determined by the very essence of the objects being studied.

Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intraword opposition; the meanings of verbal forms that arise in combination with other verbal forms, meanings determined by the laws of word compatibility and sentence construction are the subject of syntax.

Syntax as the science of the syntactic structure of a language makes it possible to construct and show a system of syntactic units, connections and relationships between them, what and how they are composed of, and by what means components (elements) are connected into syntactic units.

Collocation- the lowest unit of syntax; This is a combination of two or more independent words related to each other in meaning and grammatically, for example: bowed head, run fast, red scarf. Sentences are formed from phrases. Like a word, a phrase names objects, signs, actions, but only does it more specifically, since the dependent word clarifies the meaning of the main one.

The phrase has the following signs: 1) the presence of at least two independent words; 2) their semantic unity; 3) them grammatical connection: a wonderful moment appeared before me etc. The most integral in meaning are phrases denoting objects with their signs (May afternoon, running deer, girls’ faces, road in the forest etc.).

A minimal phrase that includes two independent (notional) words is called simple (meeting friends, meeting with friends, friendly meeting, met friends). Complex phrases are formed during the spread of simple (meeting old friends, met brother and friend, wrote a letter to brother). Complex phrase can be divided into simple (meeting of friends, old friends; met brother, met friend; wrote to brother, wrote a letter).

A subordinating relationship at the level of a phrase is always “subordinative” in nature. Subordination is a direct and one-way communication from the subordinate to the subordinate. Let's look at three main ways to connect words in a phrase.

Coordination- this is a method of subordinating communication in which the dependent word is placed in the same forms as the main one, for example: red barn, this barn, empty barn. In these phrases the dependent words red, this, empty stand in those forms - singular, masculine, nominative case, same as the main word barn.

Control- this is a method of subordinating connection in which a dependent word (a noun or another part of speech used in the meaning of a noun) is placed with the main word in a certain case, for example: see the teacher (V. p.), sow wheat (V. p.), mastering the depths (R. p.).

Adjacency- this is a method of subordinating communication in which the dependent unchangeable word (adverb, indefinite form verb, gerund) is associated with the main one only in meaning, for example: persistently interested, came to talk, slept smiling, very afraid.

Offer- this is the basic syntactic unit that contains a message about something, a question or an incentive (order, advice, request). A sentence is a separate statement, i.e. has semantic completeness.

A sentence, unlike a phrase, has grammatical basis, consisting of main members (subject or predicate) or one of them. The grammatical basis contains the grammatical meaning of the sentence, which is associated with the mood of the predicate verb, for example: sentence It'll get dark soon contains a message that the action will take place in the future, and the sentence Would you make some soup? contains motivation. The sentence is also characterized by intonation completeness, which is expressed by a long pause at the end of the sentence.

The main features of the proposal are:

1. grammatical form in the form of a predicative basis - main members;
2. predicative meaning expressed by grammatical means;

Intonation having a completed structure;

Free lexical content.

Simple sentence has a different structure, different volume, varies grammatical meanings. Among them, the obligatory values are the syntactic mood of time and person; they express themselves different ways. This difference is embodied in two types simple sentence- two-part and one-part.

Two-part is a sentence that consists of two main members - subject and predicate, for example: Somewhere God sent a piece of cheese to a crow(I. Krylov).

· One-piece is a sentence that consists of only one main member - subject or predicate.

The most important general logical meanings of a simple sentence are affirmation and negation. IN affirmative sentences the connection of an action or attribute with an object is expressed, it is asserted independent sign or the presence of an item, for example: The road left the forest and entered the fields(Paust.); Cleared in the west(B.); The carriage was cramped(Paust.); The lights began to blink. Here's the house(Ser.).

IN negative sentences the connection of an action or attribute with an object, the presence of an independent attribute or the existence of an object is denied, for example: Idealism is no longer in fashion(Ch.); Money can't buy intelligence(last). Negation has a special indicator - a particle not (nor), but can be expressed descriptively: Go, go - no work! What kind of work is it like in winter?(M.G.). In the presence of a “double” negative, a strengthened statement is expressed: Olenin could not help but admire the horse(L.T.).

Members of the sentence are main and secondary. The main members of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. Minor members sentences: definition, addition and circumstance.

Subject- This main member sentences that denote the subject of speech and answer questions in the nominative case Who? or What?, For example: Kashtanka entered a small room with dirty wallpaper and backed away in fear(A. Chekhov).

Predicate- this is the main member of the sentence, which agrees with the subject and answers questions what does the item do? what's happening to him? what is he like? what is he? who is he? etc., for example: Already woke up songbirds(I. Sokolov-Mikitov). The predicate can be simple ( I wanted bun), compound ( I wanted to eat bun) and complex ( I wanted to become a baker ).

Minor members sentences depend on the main ones and are grammatically subordinate to them. The secondary members explain and clarify the meaning of the word forms that dominate them.

Definition- this is a minor member of the sentence, which denotes the attribute of the subject and explains the subject, complement and other members of the sentence expressed by the noun, and answers questions Which? whose? Definitions as dependent words refer to nouns.

According to the method of expression, definitions are divided into agreed upon And inconsistent. Agreed definitions are expressed by adjectives, pronouns, participles, numerals that agree with the word being defined in gender, number and case. Inconsistent definitions are expressed by nouns and pronouns with and without prepositions, comparative degree adjective, infinitive, adverb that agree with the word being defined by means of control or adjacency

Also the definition is participial. A special type of definition is application.

Application- this is a special type of definition, expressed by a noun, consistent with the word being defined in the case, and denoting various additional information about the subject (age, nationality, profession, specialty, proper names and proper names, character qualities), for example: Driver-Kyrgyz sits motionless on the beam(D. Furmanov). The application may be agreed upon And inconsistent. Applications that are proper names (names of newspapers, magazines, enterprises, works of art etc.). All other applications are consistent, i.e. are placed in the same number and case as the word being defined.

Addition- this is a minor member of a sentence that denotes an object and depends on the predicate or another member of the sentence. The supplement answers questions indirect cases. In a phrase, the addition is associated with the main word using adjacency and control.

There are additions straight And indirect. Direct the complement denotes the object to which the action is directed, and indirect addition is expressed by forms of oblique cases with and without prepositions.

Circumstance- this is a minor member of a sentence that denotes a sign of an action or other sign and answers questions How? in what degree? Where? Where? where? When? how long? since when? etc. Circumstances explain the predicate (in most cases) or other members of the sentence.

The main features of a complex sentence:

1. equivalence and independence of its constituent parts;
2. creative connection between them.

These features are expressed in coordinating conjunctions. The coordinating conjunction stands between the connected parts and is not included in any of them; it represents the grammatical form of the entire compound sentence,

Complex subordinates They call sentences in which one of the sentences (subordinate clause) is subordinate in meaning to another (main) and is connected with it by a subordinating conjunction or a conjunctive word, for example: The road was washed away by the rain, leaving potholes along the edges.(I. Goncharov).

The subordinating connection is formalized by allied means - subordinating conjunctions, allied words, demonstrative words. Conjunctive means perform two functions common to a complex sentence: 1) connect predicative elements; 2) express the relationship between them; In addition, conjunctions and allied words perform a third, special function: they formulate a subordinate clause.

Subordinating conjunctions differ in meaning: time (when, bye, as soon as and etc.); condition (if, if); comparison ( as if, exactly and etc.); target ( to); cause (since, because) etc., and each group has a main union (or main ones), and all others have limited use, differ in details of meaning or stylistic coloring.

Conjunctive words (relative pronouns) do not apply to service units speech. They retain their pronominal meaning in a complex sentence, i.e., they point to the person (Who), item (What), sign (which), quantity (How many), space (where, where) etc. Conjunctive words not only perform all three functions characteristic of subordinating conjunctions, but are also members of the sentence in the subordinate clause; For example: Service,about which for a minute I thought with such delight, it seemed to me like a grave unfortunate(P.) - union word which connects the subordinate clause with the main clause (with the noun service), expresses attributive relations, represents grammatical form subordinate clause and is an addition to the predicate verb thought. By their significance, the allied words are opposed subordinating conjunctions in general and homonym conjunctions in particular (what, how, when).

In a non-union complex sentence one of the main means of communication is missing - conjunctions and allied words. The function of linking and expressing relationships between parts is performed primarily by intonation. In some constructions additional means are used: 1) demonstrative pronominal words (so, so, one and etc.); 2) words with general indicative meaning (first, first, because, this, therefore, for this and etc.); 3) the ratio of aspectual and tense forms of the verb, mood forms.

In non-union complex sentences, the role of punctuation marks is more important than in allied ones; the rules for their use are more complex. Thanks to signs, sentences of the same structure, but with different types of relations, are distinguished.

Non-conjunctive complex sentences, like allied ones, have equivalent or unequal parts. In this way they are similar to complex or complex ones. However, in non-union states neither the independence nor the dependence of the parts is formally expressed.

Offers of equivalent type can express two types of relations: enumeration and comparison.

Transfer expressed by intonation (“intonation of enumeration”), which is characterized by a uniform rise in tone at the end of each part; the number of parts is not limited; For example: It was beginning to get light, the river was foggy, our fire went out(Cor.). When listing, simultaneity is expressed ( verb forms imperfect form) or multi-temporality ( perfect view); For example: Gustayarosa lay on the crumpled grass, heavy drops fell from the linden leaves(A.T.); The Dnieper became dark and sloping; the shadow of the night pours from the east(P.).

Comparison is expressed by intonation (adverse"), the peculiarity of which is a higher tone in the first predicative part, a lower one in the second, with a pause between parts.

Sentences of equivalent type can be restructured into complex ones, i.e. they allow the introduction coordinating conjunctions and, a.

In sentences of unequal type the logical connection of events and situations is expressed.

Conditional relationships reflect the conditionality of one event by another; the condition lies in the first part. The main character is a dash; For example: They go ahead - they don’t spare hair(Ate.); the condition value can be based on the form subjunctive mood; For example; If there was a field, we’d find a bipod(Ate.).

Cause-and-effect relationships; 1) the reason is in the second predicative part; For example: The joys of life cannot be kept to yourself forever: joy comes and goes like a guest(Prishv,); 2) the consequence in the second part; For example: Learn good things - bad things will not come to mind(Ate.).

In sentences with the meaning of cause, the main character is a colon, with the meaning of effect - a dash.

Speech is the main means of communication between people. It is close to human consciousness and thinking. We express our thoughts in words and sentences, using the language that our parents taught us in early childhood. Language also plays an important role in later life person. Thanks to him, all the knowledge acquired in the process of life is consolidated in phrases and words, since we do not stop expressing them, guided by our opinion or attitude in conversations at work or in a friendly company. "Syntax" in in this case acts as the main assistant in constructing Russian speech, helping to correctly form phrases.

Syntax as a branch of the science of language

The branch of linguistics called "syntax" is based on the study of phrases and sentences both in the Russian language and in the field of literature.

Syntax studies syntactic structure of delivered speech and language, i.e. sentences, phrases, their construction, ways of including phrases in a sentence, consolidating constructions in the text, as well as combining and forming words in complex sentences, etc. What syntax studies and its definition is more precisely described on Wikipedia.

Syntax. Wikipedia. Definition

Syntax (translated from ancient Greek language“σύν-ταξις” - “composition”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the construction and functional interaction different parts speech in text sentences, short phrases and other units linguistic speech . In grammar it is considered integral part. Researched various kinds questions of a syntactic nature affect the field of study of such a science as morphology.

Syntax is a branch of the science of language that studies sentences and phrases, the main subsections of which are the syntax of sentences and phrases.

A phrase is a unit of syntax that is a combination of two or more independent words that are related to each other grammatically and in meaning. A phrase consists of a main word and dependent words.

The sentence is the basic unit of syntax and language; one or more words that contain the question, message or encouragement (advice, request, order); characterized by semantic completeness (i.e., it represents a statement) and intonation; includes a grammatical basis, which includes the main members, namely the subject and the predicate, or one of them.

Syntax Sections

phrase syntax;
simple sentence syntax;
complex sentence syntax;
text syntax.

There is a difference between a sentence and a phrase, which must be determined and not confuse these units into one whole, since they are of different levels, despite the fact that there is a need to study them one linguistic discipline reunites them. This is necessary to create various syntactic constructions (i.e., words are initially combined into phrases, and then sentences are made from phrases).

The proposal in this case is stronger and more improved syntactic construction. It is organized differently: unlike a phrase, it contains a grammatical basis. Simple sentences consist of one grammatical stem, while more complex ones consist of several.

Distinctive examples:

"lie on the stove"(phrase);
“Emelya slept on the stove”(simple with one grammatical basis: "Emelya"(subject) " slept"(predicate));
« While Emelya was sleeping on the stove, buckets went to fetch water.”(complex with two grammatical stems: 1) "Emelya was sleeping"; 2) "the buckets were gone").

Basic syntax concepts

In addition to the basic syntactic units, a complex syntactic whole and text also play this role. As part of all syntactic units, words are used in word form (word form) and together form the so-called “morphological paradigm”(For example, “We drove up to the Petrovs’ house in a new car» , in this case, seven words are divided into five word forms, and a preposition is an element of the word form and is included in the members of the sentence).

Word form and syntax

A word form as part of a sentence or phrase is a structural and semantic component of a syntaxeme (syntactic unit).

Syntaxeme is a unit that represents the morphological form of a word and having distinctive syntactic semantics(For example, " in the garden by the river"(location semantics used) or " beyond recognition", "to the point of exhaustion" (semantics used meaning of consequence and degree).

Syntactic connection

Between syntactic units there are syntactic connections or syntactic relationships, which are the main features of syntactic constructions.

Syntactic connection is an expression of the relationship of basic elements in their inherent syntactic unities. The main types of syntactic connections include subordination and composition.

When composing they are capable combine equal syntactic components, and in case of subordination - unequal, with one of the components acting as the main one and the other as the dependent one.

Coordinating connection contributes to the connection of homogeneous members and partially compound ones, and the subordinating one – word forms and phrases, and also partially in complex sentences.

A coordinating connection can be open, that is, it can combine a number of words (for example, “ Sergei, Sasha and Vanya were not at school yesterday"), and closed when it combines no more than two words, which are in relations of conjunction or opposition, but not enumeration (for example, “ I was sad, and I went for a walk").

There are two types of syntactic relations: predicative and non-predicative. Predicatives influence the grammatical basis; non-predicative ones can arise between words in any construction.

The role of syntax in modern Russian language

A.A. was the first to talk about syntax. Shakhmatov at the beginning of the 20th century. He was the first to make a report, which he submitted for consideration, and published the first textbook in 1914 regarding this science, which is entrenched in Russian literature.

A.A. Shakhmatov considered syntax to be the highest level of the language system, explaining that its units widely appear in the process of communication and contribute to the correlation of the reported information with reality, and also noted full set syntactic units.

Today it is difficult to separate morphology and syntax. Let us remember that morphology is based on the study of the forms and meaning of words, and syntax studies the construction of sentences and the compatibility of words and phrases. Often there are semantic and grammatical errors both in speech and in texts, in the construction of phrases (for example, “ terrible beauty" or « beautiful girl» ). The transitional element in this case from lexical-morphological meaning to syntactic meaning is the syntax of phrases, with the help of which individual words are structured into sentences.

A sentence, by its nature, has intonation completeness and a complete meaning, and a phrase defines an action, object or phenomenon, on the basis of which the sentence reproduces thoughts, emotions and desires. Wherein a sentence is considered the minimum unit of communication, since the properties of words are not always manifested only in it, as an element of communication, but sometimes also in phrases, as in their grammatical and semantic combination.

Syntax, in addition to the structure of sentences, also studies grammatical properties, as well as types and phrases as the smallest combination of words connected grammatically. Taking this into account, we can highlight the syntax of phrases and sentences in it. Thus, the generated sentences are combined in meaning into one text. The main feature of the text, in turn, will be considered semantic unity (main theme).

Valgina N.S. Syntax of modern Russian language

Textbook
B15
Valgina N.S.
Syntax of the modern Russian language: Textbook

M.: Agar, 2000. 416 p. 10000 copies

The textbook contains program material for all sections of the course on the syntax of the modern Russian language: phrases; simple and complex sentences; complex syntactic whole (interphrase unity) and paragraph.
Syntactic units are assessed from the point of view of the normativity of their use, synonymous and stylistic possibilities. The grammatical structure of syntactic units, their meaning and functions in speech, as well as the practice of use are considered. The principle of semantic-structural description of phrases and sentences and the conditions of their functioning is consistently carried out.
The principles of Russian punctuation and the main functions of punctuation marks are determined, taking into account modern printing practice.

ISBN 5-89218-113-8
© N.S. Valgina, 2000

Preface

OFFER

1. Proposal and its signs

COMBINATION

2. Short story question

3. Collocation and its relationship to the word and sentence

4. Quantitative-structural types of phrases

5. Lexico-grammatical types of phrases

5.1. Verb phrases

5.2. Noun phrases

5.3. Adverbial phrases

6. Word combinations free and non-free

7. Syntactic relationships between the components of the phrase

8. Means of expressing syntactic relations in phrases and sentences

9. Types of syntactic connections in a phrase

10. Types of syntactic connections in a sentence

11. Components of phrases and members of sentences

TYPES OF OFFERS

12. General information

13. Proposals of real and unreal modality. affirmative and negative sentences

14. Declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences

15. Exclamatory sentences

16. Common and non-common offers

17. Two-part and one-part sentences

18. Complete and incomplete sentences

19. Simple and complex sentences

STRUCTURE OF A TWO-PART SENTENCE

20. Main members of a two-part sentence

21. Secondary members of the sentence, their syntactic functions

WAYS OF EXPRESSING SUBJECT

22. Subject Expression various parts speeches

TYPES OF PREDICATE AND WAYS OF ITS EXPRESSION

24. General principle classification of predicates

25. Simple verbal predicate

26. Complex verb predicate

27. Compound verb predicate

28. Nominal predicate and types of ligaments in it

29. Nominal part predicate

30. Mixed predicate

31. Predicate expressed by adverb and interjection

32. Grammatical coordination subject and predicate forms

SECONDARY MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

33. Brief history of the issue

34. Morphologized and non-morphologized minor members of the sentence

35. Definitions agreed and inconsistent

36. Application

37. Ways of expressing additions

38. Types of additions and their meanings

39. Additions in active and passive phrases

40. Ways of expressing circumstances

41. Types of circumstances by meaning

WORD ORDER IN A SIMPLE SENTENCE. CURRENT MEMBER OFFER

42. Word order and its role in the organization of speech

43. Syntactic and actual division of sentences. word order and context

44. Word order is stylistically neutral and stylistically significant

45. Grammatical significance of word order

46. The order of the members of the sentence

SINGLE SENTENCES

47. General information about one-part sentences

48. On the history of the issue of one-part sentences

49. Definitely personal proposals

50. Vaguely personal sentences

51. Generalized personal sentences

52. Impersonal offers

53. Infinitive sentences

54. Nominative sentences

55.1. Nominative as a simple name

55.2. The nominative case as a predicate in a two-part sentence

55.3. Nominative cases used in isolation

56. Genitive sentences

WORDS-SENTENCES

57. General information

58. Types of word-sentences

INCOMPLETE AND ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

59. General information about incomplete sentences

60. Types of incomplete sentences

61. Incomplete sentences in dialogical speech

62. Elliptical sentences

63. Stylistic differentiation of incomplete and elliptical sentences

HOMOGENEOUS TERMS OF THE SENTENCE

64. The concept of syntactic homogeneity and homogeneous members offers

65. Homogeneous main members of a sentence

66. Form of the predicate in sentences with homogeneous subjects

67. Homogeneous secondary members of a sentence

68. Homogeneous and heterogeneous agreed definitions

69. Form of the defined word with several definitions connected by conjunctions

70. Unions with homogeneous members of the sentence

71. Prepositions with homogeneous members of a sentence

72. Generalizing units for homogeneous members of a sentence

SEPARATE MEMBERS OF THE OFFER

73. General concepts

74. From the history of the issue of isolated members of a sentence

75. Separate agreed and inconsistent definitions

76. Standalone applications

77. Special circumstances, expressed by gerunds and participial phrases

78. Isolated circumstances expressed by nouns and adverbs

79. Isolated revolutions with the meaning of inclusion, exclusion and substitution

80. Clarifying, explanatory and affiliate members offers

81. Semantic and stylistic functions detached members offers

INPUT AND INSERT STRUCTURES

82. General information

83. Introductory words and word combinations

84. Introductory sentences

85. Plug-in structures

APPEAL

86. Concept of conversion

87. Ways of expressing appeals

CONNECTING STRUCTURES

88. Brief history of the issue

89. The essence of accession

90. Structural and grammatical types of connecting structures

90.1. Union connection structures

90.2. Unionless connecting structures

91. Semantic and stylistic functions of connecting structures

DIFFICULT SENTENCE

92. The concept of a complex sentence

93. General classification complex sentences

94. Means of expressing syntactic relationships between parts of a complex sentence

COMPLEX SENTENCE

95. Structure of compound sentences

96. Types of compound sentences

97. Sentences with connecting conjunctions

98. Sentences with adversative conjunctions

99. Sentences with disjunctive conjunctions

100. Sentences with gradational conjunctions

101. Compound sentences with connecting relations

COMPLEX SENTENCE

102. General information

103. Brief history of the issue

104. Complex sentences with conditional and non-verbal dependent clauses

105. Grammatical means connections between parts in a complex sentence

106. Semantic-structural types of complex sentences

107. Complex sentences with attributive subordinate clause

107.1. Subsubstantive-defining sentences

107.2. Pronominal-defining sentences

108. Complex sentences with explanatory clauses

108.2. Explanatory clauses with relative subordination

108.3. The use of correlative words in explanatory clauses

109. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses

109.1. Complex sentences with the relation of simultaneity

109.2. Complex sentences with multitemporal relations

110. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses

111. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of reason

112. Complex sentences with subordinate parts of manner of action, measure and degree

113. Complex sentences with comparative clause

114. Complex sentences with a conditional clause

115. Complex applications with subordinate clause

116. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses

117. Complex sentences with a subordinate part of the goal

118. Complex sentences with a subordinate clause

119. Complex sentences with comparative relations between parts

120. Complex sentences with explanatory relationships between parts

UNIONAL COMPLEX SENTENCE

121. General information

122. Types of non-union complex sentences

COMPLEX SENTENCES CONSISTING OF MORE THAN TWO PREDICATIVE UNITS

123. General information

124. Polynomial complex sentences

124.1. Sentences with coordinating links

124.2. Sentences with subordinating connection

124.3. Proposals with non-union connection

125. Complex syntactic structures

126. Contaminated types of complex syntactic constructions

127. Period

COMPLEX SYNTACTIC WHOLE

128. General information

129. Structural features of complex syntactic integers

130. General information

131. Paragraph and complex syntactic whole

132. Paragraph in dialogic and monologue speech

ALIEN SPEECH

133. The concept of someone else’s speech and methods of its transmission

135. Indirect speech

136. Improperly direct speech

138. Three principles of Russian punctuation

139. Basic functions of punctuation marks

140. Punctuation features related to the functional purpose of the text

142. Historical variability of punctuation

SYNTAX AND ITS SUBJECT. BASIC SYNTACTIC CONCEPTS

The term “syntax” is used primarily to designate the syntactic structure of a language, which, together with the morphological structure, constitutes the grammar of the language. At the same time, “syntax” as a term is also applicable to the doctrine of syntactic structure; in this case, syntax is a branch of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the syntactic structure of language, i.e. its syntactic units and connections and relationships between them.
The division of grammar into morphology and syntax is determined by the very essence of the objects being studied.
Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intraverbal opposition; the meanings of verbal forms that arise in combination with other verbal forms, the meanings determined by the laws of compatibility of words and the construction of sentences, are the subject of syntax. Therefore in in a broad sense word syntax (gr. syntaxis - composition) is a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech.
If morphology studies words in the aggregate of all possible forms, then the syntax studies the functioning separate form words in various syntactic combinations. The minimum unit of communication is a sentence. However syntactic properties words are manifested not only in a sentence, the structure of which is entirely subordinated to the tasks of communication. The syntactic properties of words are also found at a lower level of the language system - in phrases, which are semantic and grammatical combinations of words. Consequently, syntax studies the sentence - its structure, grammatical properties and types, as well as the phrase - the minimal grammatically related combination of words. In this sense, we can talk about the syntax of a sentence and the syntax of a phrase.
The syntax of a phrase reveals the syntactic properties of individual words and establishes the rules for their compatibility with other words, and these rules are determined grammatical features words as a specific part of speech. Thus, the possibility of phrases like the red banner is determined by the grammatical properties of the combined names: a noun as a part of speech has the property of grammatically subordinating an adjective, and an adjective, as the most consistent part of speech, is able to take a form determined by the form of the noun, which is externally revealed in its inflection; phrases like write a letter also rely on the grammatical properties of the combining words: it is interesting that in this case even the grammatical property of the verb itself (transitivity) is associated with the need to combine with a certain form names, transitive verbs are not only capable of subordinating names, but also need this to express their own semantics. The syntax of the phrase in general language system is a transitional step from the lexical-morphological level to the syntactic level itself. This transitivity is due to the duality of the nature of the phrase, which is as follows. A phrase is constructed from individual lexical units, i.e., like a sentence, it is structurally formed. The functional significance of these units is different - it does not rise above the significance of lexical units.
Sentence syntax is a qualitatively new stage in the general language system, determining linguistic essence, communicative and functional significance of language. The syntax of a sentence is based on the study of units of the communicative plan. Connections and relationships between word forms and phrases as part of a sentence are subject to the goals of communication, therefore they are different from connections and relationships between the components of a phrase. However, even on this language level the general linguistic systematicity manifests itself quite clearly. For example, many even complex syntactic units are structurally based on morphological-syntactic relations, in particular complex sentences with conditional dependence: with an explanatory clause at transitive verb, with the attributive subsubstantive part and others, since such subordinate clauses do not extend the entire subordinating part of the sentence, but separate word in it (or a phrase) as a lexical-morphological unit. The presence of attributive clauses is dictated by the grammatical properties of the name, and the same properties that determine the possibility of a consistent adjective or participle, as well as an inconsistent form of designation of a feature as part of a phrase or the presence of a consistent separate definition in a simple complicated sentence; the same is true in sentences with verb dependence: the subordinate clause that extends the verb is determined by the lexico-grammatical properties of the verb. Compare, for example: Dagny felt a rush of air that came from the music and forced herself to calm down. - Dagny felt a rush of air coming from the music and forced herself to calm down (Paust.); Around the clearing where the guys were sitting, birch, aspen and alder trees grew lushly! (Pan.). - Around the clearing, with the children sitting on it, birch, aspen and alder grew lushly; Walking through the courtyard, Seryozha saw that the shutters on his windows were also closed (Pan.). - Seryozha saw the closed shutters...
The general linguistic systematicity is emphasized by the presence of interconnectedness and interpenetration of phenomena at different linguistic levels. This is the foundation on which the building of the general language system rests firmly and which does not allow its individual links to crumble.
So, the phrase and the sentence are distinguished as syntactic units different levels: phrase - pre-communicative level, sentence - communicative level, and the phrase is included in the system communication means included only through a proposal. However, the identification of these syntactic units turns out to be insufficient to judge the ultimate unit of syntactic division. Thus, it is impossible, for example, to recognize a phrase as a minimal syntactic unit. The very concept of a phrase contradicts this, since it presupposes some kind of unification of components. The word as such, as an element, cannot be recognized as a minimal syntactic unit lexical composition language, since when combined in syntactic units, it is not words in general, in the totality of their morphological forms, that are combined, but certain forms of words necessary to express a given content (naturally, with the possibility of shaping). For example, in the combination autumn foliage, two forms of the word are combined - the form female singular nominative case of a noun and the same form of an adjective. Consequently, the primary syntactic unit can be recognized as the form of a word or the syntactic form of a word. This also applies to those combining components when the words are devoid of the attribute of formation, for example: very fruitful, very pleasant.
The form of a word is, first of all, an element of a phrase. However, its role and purpose are not limited to this. The syntactic form of a word can act as a “building element” not only as part of a phrase, but also as part of a sentence, when it extends the sentence itself or participates in the construction of its basis, for example: It’s damp in the forest; Snow is falling outside the windows; Moscow in festive decorations. It follows that syntactic form words participate in the construction of sentences either directly or through a phrase. The existence of a word form as a syntactic unit is confirmed by the extreme case of its functioning, when the syntactic form of a word is transformed into a sentence, i.e. into a unit of a different syntactic level. For example: On a ship, on the way from Palestine to Odessa. Among the deck passengers are many Russian men and women (Bun.). The syntactic form of a word and phrase, on the one hand, and a sentence, on the other, are syntactic units of different functional significance and different syntactic levels, but the units are interconnected and interdependent, units of the general syntactic system of the language. However, even a sentence, being a unit of communication, is significant in language only as a small particular link, which is structurally, semantically, and accentologically subordinate to the general tasks of communication, i.e. acquires its specificity only in connection with other links (proposals). This is how the syntax of a complex whole arises, the syntax of connected speech, the syntax of a text that studies units larger than separate offer, units that have their own rules and laws of construction.

A textbook focused on active absorption material modern student, is a comprehensive coverage of traditional and modern syntactic concepts, controversial issues of syntactic theory. The description of syntactic units is given in the dynamics of their development: accompanied by excursions into the history of formation in the Russian language and a description of new syntactic phenomena. The presented material is summarized in tables, search necessary information provided with a terminological index.

Content
Preface.
Introduction.
§ 1. Syntax as a science (history and modernity).
§ 2. The place of syntax in the language system.
§ 3. General Comparative characteristics units of syntax.
§ 4. Syntax is a system of connections and relationships.
§ 5. Aspects of studying syntax.2
Collocation
§ 1. The concept of phrases.
§ 2. Aspects of the characteristics of the phrase.
§ 3. Syntactic relations in a phrase.
§ 4. Syntactic connections in a phrase.
§ 5. Syntactic connections in a sentence compared with connections in a phrase.

Simple sentence
Chapter 1. Sentence: basic concepts.
§ 1. Definition of the concept “sentence”.
§ 2. The concept of “predicativity”.
§ 3. Traditional aspects of classification of a simple sentence.
Chapter 2. Description of the structure of a simple sentence in Russian syntax of the 19th-20th centuries.
1. Two-part sentences.
§ 1. The concepts of “member of a sentence” and “divisibility of a sentence”.
§ 2. Main members of the sentence.
§ 3. Secondary members of the sentence.
2. One-part sentences.
§ 1. Conjugated verb sentences.
§ 2. Impersonal proposals.
§ 3. Infinitive sentences.
§ 4. Nominal one-part sentences.
§ 5. Various points view on one-part sentences
3. Incomplete and elliptical sentences.
§ 1. The concept of “incomplete sentence”.
§ 2. From the history of the study of incomplete sentences.
§ 3. Elliptic sentences.
§ 4. Incomplete sentences in the syntactic concept of N.Yu.Shvedova.
§ 5. Incomplete sentences in the syntactic concept of G.A. Zolotov.
4. Complication of a simple sentence.
§ 1. The concept of “complicated sentence”.
§ 2. Syntagmatically related species complications of a simple sentence.
§ 3. Syntagmatically unrelated types of complication of a simple sentence.
5. The structure of a simple sentence in the concept of N.Yu. Shvedova
(“Russian Grammar”).
§ 1. The concept of “structural diagram of a sentence”. Components block diagram.
§ 2. The paradigm of a sentence as a system of its forms.
§ 3. Regular realizations of a simple sentence.
§ 4. Distribution of the proposal.
Chapter 3. Semantic organization of a simple sentence.
§ 1. Syntactic semantics of a sentence in “Russian Grammar” 1980
§ 2. Description of the semantics of a sentence based on the concept of proposition.
§ 3. Logical-syntactic types of sentences in the concept
N. D. Arutyunova.
§ 4. Syntactic semantics in the concept of G.A. Zolotov.
§ 5. The theory of functional syntax by A. Mustajoki.
Chapter 4. Communicative organization of a simple sentence
§ 1. Actual division of the sentence.
§ 2. Means of expression actual division offers.

DIFFICULT SENTENCE
Chapter 1. Syntax of a complex sentence. General issues.
§ 1. The concept of “complex sentence”. Syntactic status of a complex sentence.
§ 2. Complex sentence in the circle of other syntactic units
§ 3. Means of communication between parts of a complex sentence.
§ 4. Coordinating and subordinating relations in the complex
Offer.
Chapter 2. Complex sentence.
§ 1. The place of a complex sentence in the system of complex sentences.
§ 2. Classifications of compound sentences.
Chapter 3. Complex sentence.
§ 1. Definition of the concept.
§ 2. History of the study and classification of complex sentences.
§ 3. Classification of complex sentences.
Chapter 4. Complex non-union proposal.
§ 1. The concept of “complex non-union sentence” and the scope of syntactic phenomena that fall under this concept.
§ 2. History of the study and classification of non-union complex sentences.
§ 3. Classification of non-union proposals.
Chapter 5. Complex polynomial sentences.
Complex syntactic WHOLE (CCW) AND TEXT
§ 1. Implementation of a sentence in the text.
§ 2. Definition of the concept “complex syntactic whole”.
§ 3. Syntactic description of the text. Text features.
§ 4. Text categories. Changes in syntactic structure
§ 1. Different understanding of new syntactic changes in the literary language.
§ 2. Syntactic types of prose.
§ 3. Changes in the system of phrases and syntactic connections.
§ 4. Changes in the supply area.
§ 5. Latest changes in the syntactic structure of sentences in modern literary prose.
Basic information about Russian punctuation
§ 1. The concept of punctuation. Principles of Russian punctuation.
§ 2. Functions of punctuation marks.
Literature.
Terminological index.

Preface .
Syntax, highest level in the language system, has always been an object close attention linguists, but the variety of approaches to the description of units of this level, which has developed in national science at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries, requires deep understanding. A modern philologist student studying various scientific concepts, must be well prepared theoretically.

When creating this manual, the authors proceeded from the following: firstly, for effective teaching of syntax in a modern university classroom, a textbook is required that allows students to actively absorb the lecture material and extract Additional information; secondly, the textbook must reflect the traditional description of syntactic units and debatable issues (theory of phrases, typology of simple and complex sentences, text syntax), which in many textbooks are given one-sidedly (for example, only structural or semantic aspects), which will allow the student to develop skills in multilateral analysis of syntactic units.

This textbook is aimed, firstly, at A complex approach to highlight controversial issues of syntactic theory; secondly, to include excursions into the history of the formation of syntax units in connection with the emergence of new works on the history of the Russian language, in order to bridge the gap in teaching the history of language and the modern Russian language; thirdly, on the prospects for the development of syntax, which determines the inclusion of a section devoted to new syntactic phenomena (author by Prof. G.N. Akimova).

The information presented in the sections of the textbook “Introduction”, “Phrase Combination”, “Sentence”, “Complex syntactic whole and text”, “Changes in syntactic structure”, “Basic information about Russian punctuation”, is summarized in tables, “Terminological Index” makes it easier searching for the necessary information.

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Valgina N.S. Syntax of modern Russian language

Valgina N.S.

Syntax of the modern Russian language: Textbook

M.: Agar, 2000. 416 p. 10000 copies

Syntactic units are assessed from the point of view of the normativity of their use, synonymous and stylistic possibilities. The grammatical structure of syntactic units, their meaning and functions in speech, as well as the practice of use are considered. The principle of semantic-structural description of phrases and sentences and the conditions of their functioning is consistently carried out.

The principles of Russian punctuation and the main functions of punctuation marks are determined, taking into account modern printing practice.

ISBN 5-89218-113-8

Preface

OFFER

1. Proposal and its signs

COMBINATION

2. Brief history of the issue

3. Collocation and its relationship to the word and sentence

4. Quantitative-structural types of phrases

5. Lexico-grammatical types of phrases

5.1. Verb phrases

5.2. Noun phrases

5.3. Adverbial phrases

6. Word combinations free and non-free

7. Syntactic relationships between the components of the phrase

8. Means of expressing syntactic relations in phrases and sentences

9. Types of syntactic connections in a phrase

10. Types of syntactic connections in a sentence

11. Components of phrases and members of sentences

TYPES OF OFFERS

12. General information

13. Proposals of real and unreal modality. affirmative and negative sentences

14. Declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences

15. Exclamatory sentences

16. Common and non-common offers

17. Two-part and one-part sentences

18. Complete and incomplete sentences

19. Simple and complex sentences

STRUCTURE OF A TWO-PART SENTENCE

20. Main members of a two-part sentence

21. Secondary members of the sentence, their syntactic functions

WAYS OF EXPRESSING SUBJECT

22. Expressing the subject using different parts of speech

23. Subject expressed by phrase

TYPES OF PREDICATE AND WAYS OF ITS EXPRESSION

24. General principle of classification of predicates

25. Simple verbal predicate

26. Complex verb predicate

27. Compound verb predicate

28. Nominal predicate and types of connectives in it

29. Nominal part of the predicate

30. Mixed predicate

31. Predicate expressed by adverb and interjection

32. Grammatical coordination of subject and predicate forms

SECONDARY MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

33. Brief history of the issue

34. Morphologized and non-morphologized minor members of the sentence

35. Definitions agreed and inconsistent

36. Application

37. Ways of expressing additions

38. Types of additions and their meanings

39. Additions in active and passive phrases

40. Ways of expressing circumstances

41. Types of circumstances by meaning

WORD ORDER IN A SIMPLE SENTENCE. CURRENT MEMBER OFFER

42. Word order and its role in the organization of speech

43. Syntactic and actual division of sentences. word order and context

44. Word order is stylistically neutral and stylistically significant

45. Grammatical significance of word order

46. The order of the members of the sentence

SINGLE SENTENCES

47. General information about one-part sentences

48. On the history of the issue of one-part sentences

49. Definitely personal proposals

50. Vaguely personal sentences

51. Generalized personal sentences

52. Impersonal offers

53. Infinitive sentences

54. Nominative sentences

55. Constructions that coincide in form with nominative sentences

55.1. Nominative case as a simple name

55.2. The nominative case as a predicate in a two-part sentence

55.3. Nominative cases used in isolation

56. Genitive sentences

WORDS-SENTENCES

57. General information

58. Types of word-sentences

INCOMPLETE AND ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

59. General information about incomplete sentences

60. Types of incomplete sentences

61. Incomplete sentences in dialogic speech

62. Elliptical sentences

63. Stylistic differentiation of incomplete and elliptical sentences

HOMOGENEOUS TERMS OF THE SENTENCE

64. The concept of syntactic homogeneity and homogeneous members of a sentence

65. Homogeneous main members of a sentence

66. Form of the predicate in sentences with homogeneous subjects

67. Homogeneous secondary members of a sentence

68. Homogeneous and heterogeneous agreed definitions

69. Form of the defined word with several definitions connected by conjunctions

70. Unions with homogeneous members of the sentence

71. Prepositions with homogeneous members of a sentence

72. Generalizing units for homogeneous members of a sentence

SEPARATE MEMBERS OF THE OFFER

73. General concepts

74. From the history of the issue of isolated members of a sentence

75. Separate agreed and inconsistent definitions

76. Standalone applications

77. Isolated circumstances expressed by gerunds and participial phrases

78. Isolated circumstances expressed by nouns and adverbs

79. Isolated revolutions with the meaning of inclusion, exclusion and substitution

80. Clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of a sentence

81. Semantic and stylistic functions of isolated members of a sentence

INPUT AND INSERT STRUCTURES

82. General information

83. Introductory words and word combinations

84. Introductory sentences

85. Plug-in structures

APPEAL

86. Concept of conversion

87. Ways of expressing appeals

CONNECTING STRUCTURES

88. Brief history of the issue

89. The essence of accession

90. Structural and grammatical types of connecting structures

90.1. Union connection structures

90.2. Unionless connecting structures

91. Semantic and stylistic functions of connecting structures

DIFFICULT SENTENCE

92. The concept of a complex sentence

93. General classification of complex sentences

94. Means of expressing syntactic relationships between parts of a complex sentence

COMPLEX SENTENCE

95. Structure of compound sentences

96. Types of compound sentences

97. Sentences with connecting conjunctions

98. Sentences with adversative conjunctions

99. Sentences with disjunctive conjunctions

100. Sentences with gradational conjunctions

101. Compound sentences with connecting relations

COMPLEX SENTENCE

102. General information

103. Brief history of the issue

104. Complex sentences with conditional and non-verbal dependent clauses

105. Grammatical means of connecting parts in a complex sentence

106. Semantic-structural types of complex sentences

107. Complex sentences with attributive clauses

107.1. Subsubstantive-defining sentences

107.2. Pronominal-defining sentences

108. Complex sentences with explanatory clauses

108.1. Explanatory clauses with conjunctive subordination

108.2. Explanatory clauses with relative subordination

108.3. The use of correlative words in explanatory clauses

109. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses

109.1. Complex sentences with simultaneity relation

109.2. Complex sentences with multitemporal relations

110. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses

111. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of reason

112. Complex sentences with subordinate parts of manner of action, measure and degree

113. Complex sentences with comparative clause

114. Complex sentences with a conditional clause

115. Complex applications with subordinate clause

116. Complex sentences with subordinate clauses

117. Complex sentences with a subordinate part of the goal

118. Complex sentences with a subordinate clause

119. Complex sentences with comparative relations between parts

120. Complex sentences with explanatory relationships between parts

UNIONAL COMPLEX SENTENCE

121. General information

122. Types of non-union complex sentences

COMPLEX SENTENCES CONSISTING OF MORE THAN TWO PREDICATIVE UNITS

123. General information

124. Polynomial complex sentences

124.1. Sentences with coordinating links

124.2. Sentences with subordinating connection

124.3. Proposals with non-union connection

125. Complex syntactic structures

126. Contaminated types of complex syntactic constructions

127. Period

COMPLEX SYNTACTIC WHOLE

128. General information

129. Structural features of complex syntactic integers

130. General information

131. Paragraph and complex syntactic whole

132. Paragraph in dialogic and monologue speech

ALIEN SPEECH

133. The concept of someone else’s speech and methods of its transmission

135. Indirect speech

136. Improperly direct speech

PUNCTUATION

137. The concept of punctuation and the history of its study

138. Three principles of Russian punctuation

139. Basic functions of punctuation marks

140. Punctuation features related to the functional purpose of the text

142. Historical variability of punctuation

SYNTAX AND ITS SUBJECT. BASIC SYNTACTIC CONCEPTS

The division of grammar into morphology and syntax is determined by the very essence of the objects being studied.

Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intraverbal opposition; the meanings of verbal forms that arise in combination with other verbal forms, the meanings determined by the laws of compatibility of words and the construction of sentences, are the subject of syntax. Therefore, in the broad sense of the word, syntax (gr. syntaxis - composition) is a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech.

If morphology studies words in the totality of all possible forms, then syntax studies the functioning of a separate form of a word in various syntactic associations. The minimum unit of communication is a sentence. However, the syntactic properties of words are manifested not only in a sentence, the structure of which is entirely subordinated to the tasks of communication. The syntactic properties of words are also found at a lower level of the language system - in phrases, which are semantic and grammatical combinations of words. Consequently, syntax studies the sentence - its structure, grammatical properties and types, as well as the phrase - the minimal grammatically related combination of words. In this sense, we can talk about the syntax of a sentence and the syntax of a phrase.

The syntax of a phrase reveals the syntactic properties of individual words and establishes the rules for their compatibility with other words, and these rules are determined by the grammatical features of the word as a certain part of speech. Thus, the possibility of phrases like the red banner is determined by the grammatical properties of the combined names: a noun as a part of speech has the property of grammatically subordinating an adjective, and an adjective, as the most consistent part of speech, is able to take a form determined by the form of the noun, which is externally revealed in its inflection; phrases like write a letter also rely on the grammatical properties of the combining words: it is interesting that in this case even the grammatical property of the verb itself (transitivity) is associated with the need to be combined with a certain form of the name; transitive verbs are not only capable of subordinating names, but also need it to expressions of their own semantics. The syntax of a phrase in the general language system is a transitional step from the lexical-morphological level to the actual syntactic level. This transitivity is due to the duality of the nature of the phrase, which is as follows. A phrase is constructed from individual lexical units, i.e., like a sentence, it is structurally formed. The functional significance of these units is different - it does not rise above the significance of lexical units.

The syntax of a sentence is a qualitatively new stage in the general language system, determining the linguistic essence, the communicative and functional significance of the language. The syntax of a sentence is based on the study of units of the communicative plan. Connections and relationships between word forms and phrases as part of a sentence are subject to the goals of communication, therefore they are different from connections and relationships between the components of a phrase. However, even at this linguistic level, the general linguistic systematicity manifests itself quite clearly. For example, many even complex syntactic units are constructively based on morphological-syntactic relations, in particular complex sentences with conditional dependence: with an explanatory subordinate part of a transitive verb, with a attributive pre-substantive part, and others, since such subordinate clauses extend not the entire subordinate part of the sentence, but a separate word in it (or phrase) as a lexical-morphological unit. The presence of attributive clauses is dictated by the grammatical properties of the name, and the same properties that determine the possibility of a consistent adjective or participle, as well as an inconsistent form of designation of a feature as part of a phrase or the presence of a consistent separate definition in a simple complicated sentence; the same is true in sentences with verb dependence: the subordinate clause that extends the verb is determined by the lexico-grammatical properties of the verb. Compare, for example: Dagny felt a rush of air that came from the music and forced herself to calm down. - Dagny felt a rush of air coming from the music and forced herself to calm down (Paust.); Around the clearing where the guys were sitting, birch, aspen and alder trees grew lushly! (Pan.). - Around the clearing, with the children sitting on it, birch, aspen and alder grew lushly; Walking through the courtyard, Seryozha saw that the shutters on his windows were also closed (Pan.). - Seryozha saw the closed shutters...

The general linguistic systematicity is emphasized by the presence of interconnectedness and interpenetration of phenomena at different linguistic levels. This is the foundation on which the building of the general language system rests firmly and which does not allow its individual links to crumble.

So, a phrase and a sentence are distinguished as syntactic units of different levels: a phrase is a pre-communicative level, a sentence is a communicative level, and a phrase is included in the system of communicative means only through a sentence. However, the identification of these syntactic units turns out to be insufficient to judge the ultimate unit of syntactic division. Thus, it is impossible, for example, to recognize a phrase as a minimal syntactic unit. The very concept of a phrase contradicts this, since it presupposes some kind of unification of components. The word as such, as an element of the lexical composition of the language, cannot be recognized as a minimal syntactic unit, since when combined in syntactic units, it is not words in general, in the totality of their morphological forms, that are combined, but certain forms of words necessary to express a given content (naturally, when shaping possibilities). For example, in the combination autumn foliage, two forms of the word are combined - the feminine singular form of the nominative case of the noun and the same form of the adjective. Consequently, the primary syntactic unit can be recognized as the form of a word or the syntactic form of a word. This also applies to those combining components when the words are devoid of the sign of formation, for example: very fruitful, very pleasant.

The form of a word is, first of all, an element of a phrase. However, its role and purpose are not limited to this. The syntactic form of a word can act as a “building element” not only as part of a phrase, but also as part of a sentence, when it extends the sentence itself or participates in the construction of its basis, for example: It’s damp in the forest; Snow is falling outside the windows; Moscow in festive decorations. It follows from this that the syntactic form of a word is involved in the construction of a sentence either directly or through a phrase. The existence of a word form as a syntactic unit is confirmed by the extreme case of its functioning, when the syntactic form of a word is transformed into a sentence, i.e. into a unit of a different syntactic level. For example: On a ship, on the way from Palestine to Odessa. Among the deck passengers are many Russian men and women (Bun.). The syntactic form of a word and phrase, on the one hand, and a sentence, on the other, are syntactic units of different functional significance and different syntactic levels, but the units are interconnected and interdependent, units of the general syntactic system of the language. However, even a sentence, being a unit of communication, is significant in language only as a small particular link, which is structurally, semantically, and accentologically subordinate to the general tasks of communication, i.e. acquires its specificity only in connection with other links (proposals). This is how the syntax of a complex whole arises, the syntax of coherent speech, the syntax of a text, which studies units larger than a single sentence, units that have their own rules and laws of construction.

Defining a set of syntactic units is by no means sufficient to describe the syntactic system of a language, since a system is not only a set of elements, but also their connections and relationships. Thus, a syntactic connection serves to express the dependence and interdependence of the elements of a phrase and a sentence and forms syntactic relationships, i.e. those types of syntactic correspondence that are regularly identified in syntactic units, regardless of their level. For example: as a result of the subordinating connection of agreement in the combination stone house, attributive relations are born between the forms of words in a given syntactic unit; The control relationship became the basis for object relations in combination with the buy book.

Predicative relations arise as a result of the syntactic connection of the main members of the sentence. At the complex sentence level different types syntactic connections (subordinating, coordinating, non-conjunctive) are also formed by syntactic relationships - cause-and-effect, temporal, target, comparative-adversative, enumerative, etc. This means that syntax studies the syntactic units of language in their connections and relationships. The content of syntactic relations is two-dimensional: on the one hand, it reflects the phenomena of the real world, from which it derives its information content (the relationship between an object and its attribute, an action and an object, etc.); on the other hand, it is based on the interaction of the components of the actual syntactic units (dependence, for example, of the controlled form of a word on the controlling one, the coordinated one on the one that determines this coordination, etc.), i.e. relies on syntactic connections. This two-dimensionality of the content of syntactic relations is the essence of syntactic semantics in general and the semantics of syntactic units in particular. Syntactic semantics (or syntactic meaning) is inherent in any syntactic unit and represents its content side; Naturally, only units that can be decomposed into components (word combinations, sentences) can have a semantic structure. If we turn to the main syntactic unit - the sentence, then, based on what has been said, we can find in it the content side (reflection of real objects, actions and features) and formal organization (grammatical structure). However, neither one nor the other reveals another side of the proposal - its communicative significance, its purpose. So, content (what is transmitted), form (how is transmitted) and purpose (for what is transmitted) - these are three conditionally isolated (they exist in unity) aspects of the sentence, which served as the basis for different approaches to the study of sentences - semantic, structural and communicative. All three sides of one phenomenon have “deep analogy and parallelism.” For example, in the simplest sentence The bird flies, the semantic structures (the real bearer of the attribute and the attribute), syntactic, or formal-grammatical (subject and predicate), and communicative (given, i.e. the initial moment of the utterance, and new, i.e. ... what is communicated about a given thing, or, in other terminology, theme and rheme). However, this relationship can be violated, and it is precisely this possible discrepancy between the components of the syntactic, semantic and communicative structure of a sentence that justifies the thesis about the existence and independence of all three levels of sentence division. For example, in the sentence He has fun, a coincidence can only be found regarding the function of the component fun: this and syntactic predicate, both a semantic predicate and a rheme of a message, while its component is the semantic subject of the state and at the same time the topic of the message, but it is not the subject.

Syntactic science knows all three aspects of the study of a sentence, as a result of which an opinion has been formed about the need to distinguish, accordingly, a sentence in a language (taking into account its syntactic semantics and formal organization) and a sentence in speech, i.e. a proposal implemented in a context, in a specific speech situation(taking into account its communicative orientation). The latter is usually called a statement, although the same term is often used - a sentence, meaning its speech content.

A set of syntactic units isolated in a language forms its syntactic means. Like any other, syntactic means have their own specific purpose, i.e. do not exist on their own, but for the sake of certain functions. The particular functions of syntactic units are determined by the general communicative function of syntax. If the communicative function is performed by a sentence (utterance) as a syntactic unit, then the function of any syntactic unit of the pre-communicative level (syntactic form of a word, phrase) can be recognized as the role of this unit in the construction of a sentence (as a component of a phrase or a member of a sentence). The concept of function is often identified with the concept of syntactic meaning and, therefore, is directly associated with syntactic semantics. With the differentiated use of these terms, meaning is understood as the expression of extra-linguistic relations, i.e. relations of real reality, in this case the content of the term “function” remains the actual syntactic indicators - “constructive”, associative functions.

To designate syntactic units divided into components, there is also the term “syntactic construction”, which is used both in relation to an abstract language model and in relation to a concrete one. linguistic unit built according to this model.

In the general language system, the syntactic side occupies special place- this is a phenomenon higher order, because to express thoughts it is not enough just to select lexical material; it is necessary to correctly and clearly establish the connection between words and groups of words. No matter how rich you are lexicon language, ultimately, it always lends itself to inventory. But “the language is inexhaustible in combining words.” It is in the structure of the language, i.e. in its grammar (and primarily in its syntax), the basis of its national specificity is laid. It is known that many words in the Russian language are of foreign origin, but they easily coexist with native Russian words. Time has made such words as beets, bed, money, etc., completely Russian, precisely because they obeyed the rules of compatibility of words in the Russian language. In the grammatical design of a word, the syntactic side always comes first: thus, many morphological properties of a word appear as a result of the specifics of its functioning in a sentence; a vivid example of this is the history of the formation and development of adverbs.